HORSES, 


SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES. 


Bv  CAPTAIN  WILLIAM  H.  CARTER, 

SIXTH    CAVALRY,    U.  S.    ARMY. 


LEAVENWORTH,  KANSAS: 

KETCHESON    &    REEVES,    PRINTERS    AND    BINDERS. 


Entered  according  to  act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1895, 

BY  CAPTAIN  WILLIAM  H.  CARTER, 
in  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


There  is  no  scarcity  of  excellent  books  on  the  history, 
breeding,  training,  and  veterinary  treatment  of  all  classes 
of  horses,  as  well  as  on  horsemanship  in  general. 

Many  of  these  will  well  repay  the  student  for  the  time 
spent  in  mastering  them,  but  none  seem  to  meet  the  wants 
of  the  army,  for  which  this  book  is  primarily  intended. 

It  has  been  my  endeavor  to  find,  and  bring  together  in 
available  form,  some  of  the  facts  regarded  as  of  value  to 
those  upon  whom  the  government  must  depend,  to  a  great 
extent,  for  important  services  when  war  comes  upon  the 
country. 

Photography  has  been  used  as  far  as  possible,  because 
of  the  natural  tendency  to  exaggeration  in  drawn  illustra- 
tions. The  photographs,  except  those  of  foreign  services, 
were  taken  by  Captain  W.  D.  BEACH,  Third  Cavalry,  in 
charge  of  the  Department  of  Engineering,  and  to  whom  I 
am  indebted  for  assistance  and  encouragement  during  the 
progress  of  the  entire  work. 

I  desire,  also,  to  express  my  obligations  to  Major  J.  B. 
BABCOCK,  Assistant  Adjutant-General,  in  charge  of  the 
Bureau  of  Military  Information,  to  the  military  attaches 
who  kindly  assisted  me  in  obtaining  valuable  data,  and  to 


4  PREFACE. 

Lieutenant  E.  L.  PHILLIPS,  Sixth  Cavalry,  for  several  of 
the  line  drawings. 

A  great  many  publications  have  been  consulted,  and  in 
many  instances  quoted.  It  has  not  been  practicable  to 
give  proper  credit  for  use  of  ideas  and  language  in  each 
instance,  but  a  general  acknowledgment  is  here  made. 

PARTIAL    LIST    OF    PUBLICATIONS    CONSULTED. 

The  Exterior  of  the  Horse.     (GOUBAUX  AND  BARKER.) 
Horses  and  Stables.     (FITZWYGRAM.) 
Diseases  and  Injuries  of  the  Horse.     (KiRKY.) 
Seats  and  Saddles.     (DWYER.) 
The  Horse  in  Motion.     (STILLMAN.) 

Parfait  Marechal.     (  PAR  DE  SOLLEYSOL,  Ecuyer,  MDCXI.) 
Principes  De  Dressage  Et  D'Equitation.     (Fn.Lis.) 
Modern  Horsemanship.     (E.  L.  ANDERSON.) 
Training  Cavalry  Horses.     (GARRARD.) 
How  to  Buy  and  Sell.     (HOWDEN.) 
Horses  and  Riding.     (NEVILLE.) 
Riders  of  Many  Lands.     (DODGE.) 
Patroclus  and  Penelope.     ( DODGE.) 
Bridle  Bits.     (BATTERSBY.) 
Records  of  the  Rebellion. 
Journal  United  States  Cavalry  Association. 
Journal  Royal  United  Service  Institution  (British). 
Reports  Quartermaster  General,   1861  to  1866. 
Report  of  Chief  of  Cavalry,  1863. 

Report  on  Diseases  of  the  Horse.     (Department  of  Agriculture.) 
Report  of  Board  on  Cavalry  Equipments  and  Veterinary  Supplies,  1884. 
Report  Department  of  Agriculture  on  Agricultural  Grasses  and  Forage 
Plants  of  the  United  States. 


WILLIAM  H.  CARTER, 

Captain  Sixtli  Cavalry. 


FORT  LEAVENWORTH,  KANSAS, 
January,  1895. 


CONSENTS. 


CHAPTER  I.— INTRODUCTORY. 


CHAPTER  II.— THE  CAVALRY  HORSE. 

Purchase  of  Cavalry  Horses. —  Importance  of  Careful  Inspection. —  Remarks 
on  Judging  Horses. —  Nomenclature  of  the  Horse. —  The  Skeleton. — 
The  Superior  Muscles. —  The  Exterior  Regions. —  Examination  of  the 
Horse. —  Relations  Between  Dimensions  of  Certain  Parts. —  Examina- 
tion in  Detail  as  to  Form. —  The  Head;  Neck;  Withers;  Shoulders; 
Back;  Ribs;  Chest;  Fore  Legs  and  Feet;  Hind  Quarters;  Tail;  Body. — 
Examination  for  Soundness  .  ...  17  to  55 


CHAPTER  III.— AGE  OF  HORSES. 

Period  of  Longevity  or  Extreme  Age. —  Mares  Live  Longer  than  Horses. — 
"Rising"  and  "Past"  a  Certain  Age. — Age  as  Indicated  by  the  Teeth. — 
Wolf's  Teeth.  -  Temporary  Teeth.— Permanent  Teeth.  — The  Marks 
or  Cups. —  Angle  Which  Incisors  Make  in  Coming  Together. — The 
Tusks.— Rasping  Off  the  Corners  of  Incisors. —  Bishoping  .  .  .  56  to  73 


CHAPTER  IV.— ENDURANCE  OF  HORSES. 

Influence  of  the  Weight  of  the  Pack. — Necessity  for  Husbanding  Strength 
at  First. —  Preliminary  Hardening  Valueless  Unless  Horses  Are  Kept 
Supplied  with  Forage. — Abuse  of  Horses. —  Marching  Gaits.  —  Endur- 
ance Varies  with  Treatment,  Size  and  Shape. —  Causes  of  Losses  of 
Horses  in  War.  — Cavalry  Raids.— Losses  of  Horses  in  Various  Cam- 
paigns.—  The  Establishment  of  the  Cavalry  Bureau,  and  What  It 
Accomplished. —  Frontier  Service 74  to  95 


6  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  V.— FRAMEWORK  OF  THE  HORSE 
MECHANICALLY  CONSIDERED. 

Center  of  Motion.  —  Center  of  Gravity.  —  Base  of  Support.  —  Relative 
Positions  of  Centers  of  Motion  and  Gravity. —  Equilibrium. —  Effect  of 
Head  and  Neck  on  Center  of  Gravity. —  Artificial  Balance  of  Saddle 
Horse 96  to  105 


CHAPTER  VI.— GAITS  OF  THE  HORSE. 

Motion  Implies  Displacement  of  Center  of  Gravity.  —  Natural  Gaits. — 
Stride  and  Step.  — The  Walk.— The  Trot— The  Hand  Gallop.  — The 
Gallop;  True,  False,  Disconnected.  —  Fatigue  Somewhat  Dependent 
on  Motion  of  Center  of  Gravity. —  The  Jump io6%to  121 


CHAPTER  VII.— BITS. 

Classified  as  Bar,  Snaffle  and  Curb. —  The  Mouthing:  Pelham;  Whitman.— 
Bit  and  Bridoon. — Horse's  Mouth  Structurally  Considered:  Curb  Groove; 
Jaw  Bone;  Tongue  Channel;  Bars.— Temperament  of  Mouth:  Normal; 
Tender;  Hard;  Spoiled. —  Dimensions  Considered  in  Fitting  Curb  Bits; 
Width  of  Mouth;  Width  of  Tongue  Channel;  Height  of  Bars.— The 
Curb  Bit:  Its  Action  as  a  Lever;  Proportions  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Branches;  Falling  Through;  Standing  Stiff;  Angle  at  which  Reins 
Act  on  Bit;  Position  of  Curb  Chain;  Width  and  Length;  Form  and 
Proportions  of  Mouth-Piece;  Attachment  of  Headstalls.  —  American, 
British  and  European  Cavalry  Bits 122  to  152 


CHAPTER  VIII.— BITTING  AND  TRAINING. 

End  and  Aim  of  Bitting. —  Principle  Governing  All  Bitting. —  Importance 
of  Knowledge  of  Subject.—  Effect  of  Head  and  Neck.—  How  Bit  Should 
Be  Regarded.  —  Rational  Treatment.  —  Training.  —  Horse  Made  Fa- 
miliar with  New  Surroundings. —  Equipped  with  Snaffle  Bit — "Dumb 
Jockey." — Riding  School  and  Track. —  Establishing  Gaits.— Jumping. — 
Use  of  Longe;  Training  Halter;  Running  Rein. —  Saddle. — Use  of 
Saber  and  Fire -Arms.  —  Selecting  and  Fitting  Curb  Bit.  —  Mouth 
Gauge.  — Trial  Bit.— Hard  and  Tender  Mouth.— Effect  of  Seat  of 
Rider.  —  Riding  with  One  Hand.  —  Guiding  by  Pressure  of  Rein  on 
Neck  .  .  153  to  171 


CONTENTS.  7 

CHAPTER  IX.— SADDLES. 

Value  of  Knowledge  of  Construction  and  Adjustment. — Under  Surface: 
Shape ;  Size  Proportioned  to  Weight  Carried.  —  Upper  Surface :  Size 
Proportioned  to  Bulk  Carried. —  Importance  of  Shape  of  Seat. — Where  to 
Put  the  Weight  in  Saddle.— Position  of  Saddle  on  the  Horse.— Materials 
for  Construction.  —  Military  Saddles.  —  Side  Bars:  Length;  Shape; 
Adjustable. —  Experiment  to  Show  Proper  Adjustment  of  Pack. —  Pad- 
ding: Pads;  Blankets. —  Cruppers. —  Breast  Straps. —  Rules  for  Selection 
and  Arrangement  of  Saddle  and  Pack .172  to  183 


CHAPTER  X.— CAVALRY  SADDLES  AND  PACKS. 

Designed  to  Carry  Heavy  Loads. — Weights  of  Saddles  and  Packs. — Disad- 
vantages of  Heavy  and  Bulky  Packs. — American  Cavalry:  The  Saddle; 
Field  Equipment;  Pack;  Field  Uniforms. —  British  Cavalry:  Service 
Orders;  Saddle;  Field  Equipment;  Pack;  Remarks. —  German  Cavalry: 
Arms;  The  Saddle;  Pack;  Remarks. — Russian  Cavalry:  Arms;  Saddle; 
Pack. —  Belgian  Cavalry:  Arms;  Saddle  Equipments;  Pack. — Austrian 
Cavalry:  The  Saddle;  Pack. —  Observations  184  to  242 


CHAPTER  XL— SEATS. 

Variety  of  Seats. —Value  of  a  Well  Balanced  Seat.— Safest  and  Best 
Ssat. —  Balance,  Friction  and  Stirrups. —  Seat  Depends  Upon  Purpose 
In  Riding.—  Long  or  Chair  Seat;  Tongs-across-a-wall "  Seat;  Fork 
Seat;  Military  Seat  243  to  264 


CHAPTER  XII.— FORAGE. 

Allowance  to  Public  Animals. —  Standard  Weights. —  Hay:  Upland;  Low- 
land; Wet  Meadow;  Good;  Inferior;  Mow-Burnt.  —  Dust  in  Hay. — 
Haystacks. —  Grasses  in  General:  Timothy;  Red  Top;  Bermuda  Grass ; 
Orchard  Grass;  Kentucky  Blue  Grass;  Clover;  Alfalfa;  Buffalo  Grass; 
Gramma  Grass;  Gietta  Grass;  Blue  Stem;  Blue  Joint;  Fodder  or 
Roughness.  —  Weight  and  Measurement  of  Hay.  —  Oats. —  Corn. — 
Barley. —  Bran 265  to  289 


8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XIII. —  STABLE  MANAGEMENT. 

Herding.  —  Stables.  —  Ventilation.  —Water.  —  Feeding. —  Stable  Routine.— 
Grooming. —  Shoeing.  —  Nursing  Sick  Horses:  Discharges;  Hand 
Rubbing;  Sponging;  Hot  and  Cold  Applications;  Steaming;  Poultices; 
Bandages;  Pulse;  Temperature;  Blankets;  Removing  Shoes;  Balls; 
Drenches;  Injections.  —  Supply  Table  of  Medicines.  —  Instruments. — 
Explanation  of  Medicines. —  Prescriptions 290  to  324 


CHAPTER  XIV. —  DISEASES  AND  INJURIES. 

Common  Cold. —  Influenza.— Strangles. —  Glanders. —  Pneumonia,  or  Lung 
Fever. —  Lampas. — Constipation. —  Spasmodic  Colic. — Flatulent  Colic. — 
Diarrhea. —  Lockjaw. —  Profuse  Staling.— Retention  of  Urine.— Bloody 
Urine. —  Poll  Evil. —  Sore  Back. —  Mange. —  Scratches. —  Spavins. — 
Curb. —  Capped  Hock.  —  Broken  Knees. —  Splint. —  Ringbones. — Winr1- 
galls. —  Interfering. —  Swelled  Legs. —  Pricking  of  the  Foot. —  Punc- 
tures of  the  Frog. —  Corns.  —  Quittor.  — Sand  Cracks. —  Seedy  Toe. — 
Thrush. —  Navicular  Disease. —  Laminitis.  —  Side  Boner.— 
Calking. —  Flesh  Wounds:  Gun  Shot;  Stabs;  Cuts;  Lacerations  and 
Contusions  .  ,  .325  to  368 


UII7IW1TT 


rIORSES,  SADDLES  AND  BRIDLES. 


CHAPTER    I. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

Although  the  relative  importance  of  the  horse  as  a 
factor  in  the  progress  of  civilization  has  been  materially 
reduced  by  the  introduction  of  steam  and  electricity,  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  he  has  been  the  constant  com- 
panion of  the  Caucasian  race  in  all  its  migrations,  an 
indispensable  ally  in  all  its  conquests,  and  one  of  the  most 
efficient  agents  of  its  civilization.  There  is  no  history 
that  is  not  interwoven  with  his,  and  if  by  some  convulsion 
of  nature  he  should  cease  to  exist,  it  would  then  be  realized 
how  very  necessary  he  still  is  for  pleasure,  war  or  business. 

A  knowledge  of  all  that  pertains  to  the  horse  and  his 
equipment  is  very  valuable  and  necessary  to  the  officers 
of  the  army,  for  the  government  expects  them  to  have  the 
animals  under  their  charge  kept  in  health  and  training,  so 
that  when  called  upon  they  will  be  able  to  render  a  good 
account  of  themselves,  and  if  required  to  go  to  the  limit 
of  endurance  and  even  of  life  itself,  the  fatal  moment 
may  be  deferred  until  the  desired  end  has  been  attained. 


IO  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

It  is  presumed  that  only  that  service  which  is  within  the 
limit  of  human  and  animal  power  will  be  imposed. 

Theoretical  knowledge  is  of  value  in  any  profession;  it 
comes  with  study  and  not  by  instinct.  In  no  other  sub- 
jects, however,  is  it  more  necessary  to  have  theory  and 
practice  go  hand  in  hand,  than  in  those  treated  of  in  these 
pages.  Books  alone  cannot  convey  a  knowledge  of  the 
powers  and  endurance  of  commands  under  varying  con- 
ditions of  service,  for  often,  as  in  Indian  campaigns,  the 
capacity  is  judged  by  the  weakest  members,  owing  to  the 
inhumanity  of  abandoning  a  comrade  in  a  species  of  war- 
fare in  which  the  taking  of  prisoners  is  confined  to  the 
civilized  combatants. 

Actual  experience  on  the  march  is  the  only  method  of 
testing  the  value  of  saddles  and  other  equipments,  and  the 
capacity  of  horses  to  carry  their  riders  and  packs  without 
breaking  down. 

Even  those  familiar  with  war  have  little  appreciation 
of  the  enormous  numbers  of  horses  and  mules  required  to 
replace  those  used  up  by  armies  during  actual  field  service. 

The  Quartermaster  General  in  his  report  for  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1864,  says: 

"  It  appears,  therefore,  in  practice,  that  the  quarter- 
master's train  of  any  army  requires,  on  the  average,  one 
army  wagon  to  every  twenty-four  or  twenty-five  men,  and 
the  animals  of  the  cavalry  and  artillery  and  of  the  trains 
will  average  one  to  every  two  men  in  the  field." 

A  knowledge  of  horses,  saddles  and  bridles  is  of  more 
importance  to  the  cavalry  officer  than  to  any  other  rider, 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  I  I 

because  good  bitting,  saddling,  packing  and  riding,  are 
what  make  up  the  efficiency  of  cavalry,  and  provide  for 
an  economical  administration  of  that  important  arm. 

Ignorance  as  to  the  great  expense  necessary  for  the 
proper  maintenance  of  this^arm  became  so  apparent  dur- 
ing the  first  two  years  of  the  Civil  War,  that  in  an  order 
establishing  the  Cavalry  Bureau,  published  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  War  at  the  close  of  the  Gettysburg  campaign,  the 
following  paragraph  occurred: 

41  The  enormous  expense  attending  the  maintenance  of 
the  cavalry  arm,  points  to  the  necessity  of  greater  care, 
and  more  judicious  management  on  the  part  of  cavalry 
officers,  that  their  horses  may  be  constantly  kept  up  to  the 
standard  of  efficiency  for  service.  Great  neglects  of  duty 
in  this  connection  are  to  be  attributed  to  officers  in  com- 
mand of  cavalry  troops. 

"  It  is  the  design  of  the  War  Department  to  correct  such 
neglects,  by  dismissing  from  service  officers  whose  ineffi- 
cency  and  inattention  result  in  the  deterioration  and  loss 
of  the  public  animals  under  their  charge." 

Under  the  circumstances  the  establishment  of  the  Cav 
airy  Bureau  was  an  urgent  necessity.  It  at  once  became  a 
potent  factor  in  the  conduct  of  the  war,  systematizing  and 
improving  the  remount  purchases  for  the  large  body  of 
cavalry  in  the  field,  and  materially  aided  in  making  possi- 
ble their  succession  of  victories  during  the  last  eighteen 
months  of  the  war. 

The  Cavalry  Bureau  not  only  enforced  a  better  system 
of  inspection,  but  by  the  establishment  of  several  immense 
depots,  under  competent  officers,  it  was  enabled  to  receive 


12  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

a  large  number  of  broken  down  horses  for  recuperation, 
and  ultimately  return  more  than  fifty  per  cent  of  them  to 
duty.  Many  of  the  others  were  sufficiently  recuperated  to 
be  sold  to  farmers,  and  thus  bring  about  a  release  of  better 
cavalry  horses  for  sale  to  the  government.  Thousands  of 
horses  were  returned  to  the  ranks  after  a  few  months'  rest, 
which  would  have  been  abandoned,  or  if  kept  in  the  ranks 
would  have  seriously  impaired  the  efficiency  of  the  cavalry. 

Cavalry  officers  frequently  present  arguments  in  favor 
of  granting  authority  to  each  regiment  to  buy  its  own 
horses,  and  enlist  its  own  recruits.  A  thorough  and  candid 
examination  of  the  recorded  experience  of  the  Civil  War 
will  convince  any  unprejudiced  individual,  that  the  pur- 
chase of  horses  under  contract  is  a  perfectly  logical  system. 
Every  attempt  to  gratify  the  wishes  of  cavalry  officers 
resulted  in  increasing  the  price  of  horses,  and  the  unrea- 
sonable requirements  of  many  of  the  inspectors  so  discour- 
aged horse  owners  and  traders,  that  a  return  to  the  contract 
system  was  deemed  necessary. 

In  time  of  peace  the  manner  of  purchase  is  not  so 
important,  except  that  a  system  should  be  adhered  to 
which  will  need  no  change  in  time  of  war.  The  present 
practice  has  resulted  from  authority  contained  in  appro- 
priation bills,  and  should  be  made  a  permanent  army  regu- 
lation. This  provides  for  the  purchase  of  horses  under 
contract  by  the  Quartermaster  Department,  subject  to 
inspection  by  a  veterinary  surgeon  or  other  person  em- 
ployed by  that  department,  as  to  soundness;  then  to  be 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  13 

submitted  to  the  inspection  of  a  cavalry  or  artillery  officer, 
to  determine  whether  or  not  the  animal  is  suitable,  and 
adapted  to  the  particular  service  required  of  him. 

For  many  years  subsequent  to  the  war  horses  were 
bought  by  boards  composed  of  three  officers  detailed  from 
the  regiment  to  be  supplied.  A  return  to  this  system  is 
not  believed  to  be  desirable.  It  is  more  satisfactory  to 
detail  one  officer  to  inspect  the  horses,  for  knowing  he  will 
be  criticised  concerning  his  acceptance  of  each  and  every 
horse  which  does  not  turn  out  well,  he  will  be  particularly 
careful. 

In  time  of  war  it  would  not  be  practicable  to  buy  for 
individual  regiments,  but  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in 
finding  enough  capable  cavalry  officers  to  supply  erne  to 
each  purchasing  point  where  contractors  would  be  required 
to  deliver. 

By  having  a  competent  cavalry  officer  of  high  rank  to 
inspect  remounts  sent  to  depots  from  time  to  time,  it  could 
be  determined  whether  any  of  the  inspectors  were  negli- 
gent or  inefficient,  in  either  of  which  cases  they  should  be 
relieved. 

It  cannot  be  expected  that  every  officer  will  become 
perfect  in  so  difficult  a  matter  as  the  inspection  of  horses, 
but  any  good  officer  with  the  interest  of  the  service  at 
heart  can  learn  to  perform  this  duty,  and  he  will  improve 
with  experience  and  persistent  work. 

Several  European  governments  provide  horses  for  their 
cavalry  from  their  own  breeding  establishments,  or  by 


14  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

acquiring  first  rights  of  purchase  through  the  grant  of  free 
service  of  the  stallions  retained  by  the  government  for 
that  purpose.  This  system  has  been  repeatedly  urged  for 
adoption  in  America,  but  there  are  so  many  good  reasons 
for  not  doing  so  that  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  the  horses 
required  for  public  service  will  continue  to  be  purchased 
from  private  breeding  farms. 

With  so  unlimited  an  agricultural  country,  there  should 
never  be  any  lack  of  suitable  horses  of  any  class  for  which 
there  is  an  active  demand  at  fair  prices. 

In  a  conflict  of  such  dimensions  as  the  Civil  War  the 
number  of  animals  required  could  not  have  been  furnished 
by  a  reasonable  number  of  government  farms. 

It*  is  not  necessary  to  breed  a  high  class  of  horses  for 
cavalry,  but  to  train  a  large  number  of  officers  to  the  duty 
of  inspecting  and  selecting  the  best  produced  on  American 
farms. 

The  horse,  if  selected  with  care  and  properly  used,  is 
capable  of  rendering  long  and  valuable  service.  A  knowl- 
edge as  to  how  to  develop  his  full  capacity  for  making  hard 
marches  while  still  retaining  his  health  and  vigor  does  not 
come  intuitively,  but  as  a  matter  of  experience  and  keen 
observation.  The  merest  lout  who  can  ride  fairly  light 
may  take  a  horse  over  an  immense  distance  in  a  single 
ride,  but  he  will  in  all  probability  expend  the  entire  vital 
force  of  the  animal,  and  leave  him  a  broken  down,  spiritless 
wreck  at  the  end  of  his  journey. 

In  the  American  service  there  are  no  regular  riding 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  15 

masters,  and  few  who  pretend  to  any  other  knowledge 
than  that  which  has  come  through  hard  service  and  long 
experience. 

Short  service  men  cannot  be  trained  to  perfection. 
Some  men,  and  horses  also,  are  very  slow  to  acquire  that 
individual  instruction  which  is  so  essential  to  correct 
maneuvering  in  large  bodies. 

The  trained  horse  of  the  high  school  is  not  regarded  as 
the  ideal  animal  for  service,  but  great  stress  is  laid  upon 
the  value  of  the  riding  school  as  a  means  of  bringing  all 
the  men  and  horses  to  an  average  state  of  efficiency. 

The  cavalry  composes  a  class  of  riders  from  which  a 
great  degree  of  uniformity  is  demanded.  The  necessity 
arises  from  the  existence  of  a  special  and  narrowly  defined 
object  to  be  attained.  The  possibility  of  accomplishing 
it  exists  only  when  both  men  and  horses  are  selected  with 
reference  to  this  object.  Some  men  are  born  riders,  and 
if  taken  in  service  young  soon  adapt  themselves  to  cavalry 
riding.  Such  men  are  usually  of  a  peculiar  build,  which 
combines  strength  and  vigor,  with  lightness  and  dexterity, 
and  possess  that  peculiar  temperament  which  enables  them 
to  train  horses  to  perfection. 

All  men  are  not  so  gifted,  and  in  order  to  train  this 
large  majority,  the  officer  should  acquaint  himself  with 
everything  that  pertains  to  the  horse.  The  presence  in 
the  ranks  of  untrained  riders  is  bad  in  peace  and  criminal 
in  war,  but  every  army  has  them.  In  order  to  neutralize 
the  effect  of  their  ignorance,  good,  well-fitted  saddles  and 


l6  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

bits  are  prime  necessities.  It  is  the  pain  and  excitement 
caused  in  young,  nervous  horses,  by  powerful  bits  in  the 
hands  of  thoughtless  or  bad  riders,  which  make  them  de- 
generate into  plungers  and  bolters.  Curb,  spavin,  broken 
knees,  and  other  injuries  may  frequently  be  traced  to  the 
same  cause.  Horses  thus  injured  are  condemned  and  sold 
for  a  mere  trifle,  and  the  indifferent  rider  is  placed  on  an- 
other animal,  not  infrequently  to  repeat  the  same  experi- 
ence through  ignorance. 

No  more  costly  or  humiliating  lessons  were  learned 
during  the  Civil  War  than  those  relating  to  cavalry  service. 
The  enthusiasm,  patriotism,  intelligence  and  courage  of 
the  American  cavalrymen  were  proven  on  many  fields,  but 
bitter  experience  taught  them  that  those  desirable  qualities 
do  not  alone  command  success.  Training,  discipline,  and 
patient  work  are  more  potent  than  patriotism,  coupled  with 
ignorance  and  lack  of  experience. 

There  is  an  infinite  amount  of  hardship  and  drudgery 
connected  with  service  in  the  ranks  of  any  cavalry.  It  is 
necessary,  therefore,  to  have  not  only  ability  to  ride  and 
intelligence  to  reconnoitre,  but  capacity  in  both  man  and 
horse  to  sustain  long  continued  exertion  of  the  most  ardu- 
ous character.  If  either  man  or  horse  becomes  exhausted 
or  loses  spirit,  the  effect  is  soon  felt  by  the  other.  The 
necessity,  therefore,  for  training  inspectors  of  horses  is  too 
apparent  to  require  argument. 


CHAPTER    II. 


THE  CAVALRY  HORSK. 


Purchase  of  Cavalry  Horses. —  Importance  of  Careful  Inspection. —  Re- 
marks on  Judging  Horses.— Nomenclature  of  the  Horse. — The  Skel- 
eton.—  The  Superior  Muscles. —  The  Exterior  Regions. — Examination 
of  the  Horse. —  Relations  Between  Dimensions  of  Certain  Parts. — 
Examination  in  Detail  as  to  Form. —  The  Head ;  Neck ;  Withers ; 
"Shoulders;  Back;  Ribs;  Chest;  Fore  Legs  and  Feet;  Hind  Quarters; 
Tail;  Body. —  Examination  for  Soundness. 


Horses  for  cavalry  service  are  purchased  under  the  con- 
tract system  by  the  Quartermaster  Department.  The 
examination  for  soundness  is  conducted  by  professional 
veterinarians  employed  for  the  purpose.  Only  the  horses 
which  pass  this  examination  are  submitted  to  further 
scrutiny  of  officers  detailed  to  duty  in  connection  with  the 
inspection  and  purchase  under  each  contract.  It  will 
therefore  be  seen,  that  the  knowledge  required  by  the 
inspecting  officers  is  such  as  will  enable  them  to  form  a 
correct  judgment  concerning  the  adaptability  of  the  animal 
for  service,  as  shown  by  his  conformation  and  breeding. 

The  duty  is  a  very  important  one,  and  the  care  with 
which  it  is  performed  has  a  marked  effect  on  the  efficiency 
of  the  service.  As  surgeons  occasionally  err  in  accepting 
recruits,  so  mistakes  must  occur  in  judging  horses;  but 


1 8  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

the  former  are  much  more  leniently  regarded  than  the 
latter. 

With  proper  care  in  the  inspection  and  purchase  of 
cavalry  horses,  sound  and  healthy  animals  are  generally 
procurable.  When  young  horses  are  received  from  farm- 
ers, and  placed  in  warm  city  stables  pending  inspection, 
the  change  of  air  and  surroundings  is  very  apt  to  produce 
colds,  influenza,  or  strangles.  Particularly  the  last  named 
trouble  may  exist  in  a  latent  form  until  the  animal  is 
shipped  upon  cars  or  boats,  when  the  continual  draughts 
to  which  they  are  exposed  cause  the  rapid  development  of 
the  trouble.  Upon  arrival  at  the  distributing  point  or 
destination,  the  animals  may  be  found  in  an  unserviceable 
condition,  although  apparently  well  when  inspected. 

For  the  above  reason,  in  time  of  active  field  service  it 
is  much  better  to  buy  horses  not  less  than  six  to  eight 
years  of  age.  When  only  garrison  service  or  moderate 
field  work  is  expected,  horses  from  four  to  six  years  of  age 
are  preferable,  for  although  more  subject  to  disease,  they 
can  be  more  satisfactorily  trained  than  old  horses. 

Every  one  does  not  judge  a  horse  in  the  same  manner, 
and  the  opinions  of  some  are  not  as  judicious  or  reliable 
as  those  of  others.  Those  sometimes  called  upon  to  decide 
the  good  points  or  defects  of  horses  may  not  be  naturally 
endowed  with  the  peculiar  qualifications  necessary  for  the 
solution  of  the  problem.  Those  whose  duty  may  require 
them  to  perform  this  work,  may  by  intelligent  observation, 
education,  and  experience,  attain  a  satisfactory  degree  of 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  19 

proficiency,  especially  if  possessed  of  natural  aptitude,  and 
not  swayed  by  prejudice  and  fashion. 

The  faculty  of  judging  implies  not  only  attention,  but 
a  well  balanced  ability  for  comparison.  The  points  of  a 
horse  are  observed  more  quickly  when  he  is  brought  be- 
side an  animal  selected  as  a  model. 

The  price  usually  paid  by  the  government  for  horses  is 
fixed  by  the  lowest  bidder.  It  is  not,  therefore,  to  be  ex- 
pected that  ideal  animals  will  be  presented  for  inspection, 
but  only  such  as  the  contractor  can  procure  at  a  lower 
price  than  he  himself  receives.  There  will  be  a  few  first- 
class,  many  fair,  and  a  superabundance  of  indifferent  and 
mediocre  horses  presented.  The  government  will  be  best 
served  by  rejecting  all  the  latter. 

The  form  of  a  horse  determines  to  a  great  extent  his 
fitness  for  service,  and  enables  a  fair  prediction  to  be  made 
as  to  his  various  qualities,  provided  he  is  sound.  It  re- 
quires judgment,  much  instruction,  and  long  practice,  to 
correctly  estimate  the  relative  value  of  various  points,  and 
to  determine  whether  the  good  qualities  counterbalance 
existing  or  probable  defects.  Some  men  seem  able  to  see 
at  a  glance  all  the  points  of  an  animal,  but  conformation 
requires  study,  and  those  who  have  obtained  practical 
knowledge  only  are  not  infrequently  swayed  by  prejudice 
rather  than  controlled  by  sound  judgment. 

Good  points  in  a  horse  are  not  mere  matters  of  beauty, 
but  shapes  which,  on  mechanical  principles,  are  likely  to 
.answer  the  required  ends.  However,  shapes  which  may 


2O  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

be  objectionable  for  one  class  of  work,  are  not  necessarily 
so  for  another.  Thus  small  "chunky"  or  pony-built  horses 
are  better  for  continuous  work  in  the  mountains,  than 
larger  and  longer  coupled  horses. 

While  useless  to  search  for  perfection,  it  is  well  to 
study  all  the  points  of  the  ideal  horse,  in  order  to  promptly 
recognize  them  when  seen.  The  points  taken  together 
constitute  the  form,  which  must  not  be  confounded  with 
particular  attitudes  assumed  by  the  horse,  for  an  animal 
whose  conformation  is  perfectly  adapted  to  service,  will 
frequently  assume  such  awrkward  positions  while  standing 
in  a  stall,  or  at  the  picket  line,  as  to  entirely  deceive  any 
but  a  well  trained  eye. 

As  soon  as  a  horse  is  found  which  is  a  suitable  model, 
he  should  be  retained  at  hand  for  comparison,  but  con- 
tractors are  entitled  to  a  fair  construction  of  their  contracts. 
In  other  words,  if  the  government  pays  only  $125.00  per 
animal,  the  contractor  should  not  be  expected  to  put  in 
horses  whose  value  is  $200.00. 

In  conducting  an  examination  of  horses,  he  who  pos- 
sesses a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  and  physiology 
of  the  animal,  will  have  a  great  advantage  over  one  who 
does  not. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  know  the  names  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  horse,  and  it  is  presumed  that  those 
who  read  this  book  will  wish  to  understand  the  construc- 
tion of  the  skeleton  and  the  superficial  layers  of  muscles. 

The  nomenclature  of  these   parts  is  given,  as   far  as 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  21 

possible,  in  plain  language,  but  some  technical  names  are 
used  because  there  are  no  popular  names  for  the  parts 
mentioned. 

THE  SKELETON  OF  THE  HORSE. 

PLATE  /. 


The  animal  here  represented  is  the  celebrated  race- 
horse "  Eclipse,"  pronounced  by  the  highest  veterinary 
authority  to  be  perfect.  The  form  of  the  horse  is  indi- 
cated in  outline.  The  nomenclature  of  the  skeleton  is  as 
follows : 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    IJKIDLES. 


1.  Zygomatic  arch.  24. 

2.  Eye  cavity.  25. 

3.  Face  bones.  26. 
j.  Incisor  teeth.  27. 

5.  Molar  teeth.  28. 

6.  Lower  jaw.  29. 

7.  Atlas,  ist  vertebra  of  neck.  30. 

8.  Axis,  2d  vertebra  of  neck.  31. 
g.  Cervical  vertebrae  ( 5  ).  32. 

10.  Spinal  processes  of  back.  33. 

11.  Dorsal  and  lumbar  vertebrae.         34. 

12.  Sacrum.  35. 

13.  Tail  bones.  36. 

14.  Shoulder  blade.  37. 

15.  Acromion  process.  38. 

16.  Hollow  of  shoulder  blade.  39. 

17.  Upper  end  of  arm  bone.  40. 

1 8.  Arm  bone  or  humerus.  41. 
ig.  Elbow  bone.  42. 

20.  Cartilages  of  the  ribs.  43. 

21.  Ribs.  44. 

22.  Haunch.  45. 

23.  Haunch  bone. 


Great  tro'chanter. 

Small  trochanter. 

Thigh  bone. 

Ischium. 

Radius  or  fore-arm  bone. 

Carpal  or  knee  bones. 

Trapezium. 

Cannon  bone. 

Pastern  bone. 

Sesamoid  bone. 

Small  pastern  bone. 

Upper  end  of  leg  bone. 

Stifle  joint. 

Leg  bone  or  tibia. 

Point  of  hock. 

Hock  joint. 

Head  of  small  metatarsal  bone. 

Cannon  or  metatarsal  bcne. 

Coffin  bone. 

Fetlock  joint. 

Patella,  or  stifle. 

Fibula. 


SUPERIOR    MUSCLES    OF    THE    HORSE. 

The  illustration  (Plate  II)  shows  the  exterior  muscles 
of  the  horse  as  they  appear  with  the  skin  of  the  animal  re- 
moved. Some  of  the  deep  seated  and  powerful  locomotive 
muscles  are  not  shown,  and  the  one  over  the  ribs  is  omitted. 

The  principal  muscle  for  consideration  in  the  plate  is 
the  long  muscle,  or  system  of  muscles  of  the  back.  It  fills 
the  angular  space  on  each  side  of  the  spinous  processes, 
giving  roundness  to  the  back.  It  is  very  broad  and  thick 
over  the  loins,  and  in  addition  to  other  connections,  it  is 
strongly  attached  to  the  hip  bone.  It  is  attached  forward 
to  all  the  spines*of  the  vertebrae,  as  far  as  the  neck,  and  to 
a  strong  tendon-like  membrane  that  is  firmly  fastened  to 
the  same  bones. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  2$ 

Special  interest  attaches  to  this  muscle  and  tendon,  be- 
cause the  saddle  must  rest  upon  it  in  such  a  way  as  not  to 
interfere  with  the  muscular  action  of  the  fore  and  hind 
quarters. 

PLATE  n. 


The  names  of  the  muscles  are  all  of  a  technical  char- 
acter to  indicate  location,  or  action,  and  are  omitted  because 
knowledge  of  them  is  only  necessary  for  a  scientific  study 
of  the  physiology  of  the  horse. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


NOMENCLATURE  OF  THE   EXTERNAL  REGIONS  OF  THE  HORSE. 

PLATE   III. 


The  plate,  copied  from  "MegniiV  is  numbered  so  as  to 
locate  by  name  the  external  regions  of  the  horse.  It  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  commit  to  memory  this  nomencla- 
ture in  order  to  describe  horses  as  well  as  to  understand 
what  is  referred  to  by  others  when  mentioning-  the  parts. 

1.  Lips.  6.     Forelock.  n.  Poll.  13  <  Mane. 

2.  Nose.  7.     Ears.  in  Throat.  14.  Jugular 

3.  Face.  8.     Lower  jaw.  12.  Parotid  channel. 

4.  Forehead.          9.     Cheek.  gland*  15.  Chest.  , 

5.  Eyebrows.  10.  .  Nostril.  13.  Neck.  16.  Withers. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  25 


17- 

Back. 

27. 

Testicles. 

35- 

Pastern. 

45- 

Chestnut. 

i8. 

Ribs. 

28. 

Shoulder 

36. 

Coronet. 

46. 

Cannon  or 

19. 

Girth. 

and  arm. 

37- 

Foot. 

shank. 

20. 

Loins. 

29. 

Elbow. 

38- 

Fetlock. 

47- 

Fetlock  joint. 

21. 

Croup. 

30. 

Forearm. 

39- 

Haunch. 

48. 

Fetlock. 

22. 

Tail. 

Chestnut. 

40. 

Thigh. 

49. 

Pastern. 

23- 

Dock. 

32. 

Knee.  ^ 

41. 

Stifle. 

50. 

Coronet. 

24. 

Flank. 

33- 

CannoBBr 

42. 

Buttock. 

Foot. 

25- 

Belly. 

shank. 

43- 

Gaskin. 

26. 

Sheath. 

34- 

Fetlock  joint. 

44. 

Hock. 

If  many  horses  are  to  be  examined,  copious  notes 
should  be  retained  by  the  officer  for  self-protection,  and 
every  horse  passed  should  be  branded  with  a  number  on 
the  hoof  for  identification  on  the  descriptive  list,  and  also 
have  the  brand  common  to  all  public  animals  put  on  in  the 
presence  of  the  inspectors.  Blemishes  existing  at  the  date 
of  inspection  should  all  be  noted  carefully  on  the  descrip- 
tive lists. 

It  may  happen  at  times  that  officers  will  be  called  upon 
to  examine  horses  without  the  assistance  of, a  veterinary 
surgeon.  The  " examination  for  soundness"  and  the 
chapter  on  the  more  common  diseases  and  injuries  will 
give  the  ^student  sufficient  knowledge  to  conduct  fairly 
well  the  examination  for  soundness,  provided  he  system- 
atically applies  the  information  contained  therein  to  the 
cases  available  for  his  observation  in  service  from  day 
to  day. 

If  unable  to  decide  upon  any  question  arising  during 
the  examination,  the  government  should  be  given  the  ben- 
efit of  the  doubt.  Such  action  will  leave  no  cause  for 
future  regret. 

It  is  seldom  possible  for  inspecting  officers  to  quietly 


26  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

view  the  animals  in  their  stalls,  before  being  presented 
for  examination,  because  contractors  are  compelled  to  go- 
over  a  great  deal  of  country  to  collect  such  animals  as  in 
their  opinion  will  be  accepted  by  the  government. 

Contractors  sometimes  arrange  to  have  a  representa- 
tive of  the  government  accompany  them  when  gathering 
horses,  in  order  to  avoid  the  heavy  expense  incurred  by 
buying  those  which  are  sure  to  be  subsequently  thrown  on 
their  hands  for  various  defects. 

Whenever  possible  to  see  animals  in  their  own  stalls, 
it  should  be  observed  carefully  if  they  kick  or  crib,  which 
can  be  easily  told  by  the  appearance  of  the  stall  and 
manger. 

If  a  horse  points  a  toe,  or  shows  other  signs  of  weak- 
ness or  lameness,  it  can  be  more  easily  discovered  at  this 
time  than  when  crowded  in  public  stables  or  sheds  with 
large  numbers  of  other  horses. 

Few  of  the  stable  vices  can  be  cured,  and  unless  horses. 
are  badly  needed  for  immediate  field  service^  animals 
known  to  have  them  should  be  rejected. 

Some  stable  vices  may  be  acquired  from  other  horses,. 
and  it  is  therefore  very  desirable  to  avoid  introducing  into 
cavalry  stables  animals  which  may  spoil  others  compelled 
to  sta*nd  near  them. 

In  addition  to  kicking  and  cribbing,  which  are  about 
the  worst  habits  a  troop  horse  can  have,  may  be  mentioned 
weaving  or  the  swaying  motion  so  common  to  caged  ani- 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  2/ 

mals,  wind  sucking,  continual  pawing,  pulling  back  when 
tied,  and  biting. 

The  wind  sucker  takes  hold  of  the  manger,  picket  line 
or  halter  strap,  arches  his  neck  and  draws  back  with  a 
grunting  noise.  The  horse  may  be  deterred  temporarily 
from  acting  in  this  way  by  painting  or  smearing  the  ob- 
jects in  his  vicinity,  but  he  will  resume  the  practice  at  the 
first  opportunity. 

Pulling  back  is  very  destructive  of  halters,  and  should 
be  cured  when  possible  by  passing  a  piece  of  small  and 
new  hemp  rope  under  the  tail  as  a  crupper,  the  rope  being 
knotted  on  the  back  and  the  ends  passed  through  the  hal- 
ter and  tied  to  the  manger,  so  that  when  the  animal  pulls 
back  to  break  loose,  the  rope  tightens  and  lacerates  his 
tail.  One  or  two  applications  of  this  rope  crupper  will  in 
most  cases  affect  a  permanent  cure. 

The  line  of  demarcation  between  blemishes  and  defects 
is  sometimes  very  dim.  Under  the  first  named  come  all 
abnormal  conditions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  horse 
which  do  not  affect  his  serviceability,  such  as  scars,  splints 
so  placed  as  to  be  of  no  consequence,  and  similar  things. 

Under  the  head  of  defects  come  peg  splints  and  those 
very  close  to  the  knees,  ring  bones,  side  bones,  false  quar- 
ter, quarter  cracks,  sit-fasts,  and  any  trouble,  local  or 
constitutional,  which  may  tend  to  shorten  or  render  unsat- 
isfactory the  service  of  the  animal.  These  will  all  be 
treated  in  detail  later  for  the  guidance  of  the  inspector,  as 


28  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

well  as  with  a  view  to  amelioration  and  cure  when  they 
occur  in  animals  already  purchased. 

Horses  should  be  examined,  if  possible,  in  the  open  air. 
When  this  is  not  practicable,  an  open  passageway  or  shed 
should  be  selected,  where  plenty  of  light,  may  be  had. 
When  the  horse  is  led  out,  he  should  be  examined  in  pro- 
file from  in  front  and  behind,  from  the  right  and  left,  and 
obliquely  forward  and  backward,  careful  attention  being 
given  to  his  temperament  and  attitudes  in  the  meantime. 

View  the  horse  in  all  possible  aspects,  to  determine  the 
general  harmony  of  his  whole  conformation.  View  the 
formation  of  the  feet  and  legs  separately  and  in  pairs;  the 
shape,  expression  and  size  of  the  head  generally  and  in 
detail;  the  shape  of  the  back  and  withers,  with  reference 
to  carrying  a  saddle. 

The  examination  should  be  made  on  unshod  horses, 
but  if  any  animal  is  presented  shod,  special  attention  is 
necessary  to  see  if  shoes  have  been  put  on  for  the  purpose 
of  correcting  defects. 

A  good  horse  is  one  with  many  good,  few  indifferent, 
and  no  really  bad  points.  One  radically  bad  point  neutral- 
izes any  number  of  good  ones.  Excess  of  power  or  devel- 
opment in  one  part  of  a  horse  may  not  only  be  useless, 
because  the  strength  of  the  animal  is  limited  by  the  weak- 
est point,  but  it  may  be  a  positive  source  of  evil.  For 
example,  a  strong,  powerful  forehand  is  not  an  advantage 
if  the  hind  quarters  are  light,  because  the  strain  on  the 
hind  legs  will  be  unduly  great.  Similarly,  if  the  fore  legs 


. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  29 

are  weak  they  may  suffer  from  excessive  propulsion  com- 
municated by  powerful  hind  quarters,  whilst  they  might 
have  lasted  a  long  time  if  all  were  proportionately  devel- 
oped. In  a  well  formed  horse  there  must  be  not  only  no 
weak  point,  but  no  part  with  excessive  development,  as 
compared  to  the  others. 

Outward  forms  are  mainly  dependent  on  the  formation 
of  the  bony  skeleton.  In  a  well  bred  horse  the  tendons, 
ligaments  and  muscles  are  generally  in  keeping  with  the 
bones;  that  is,  large  bones  usually  give  attachment  to 
large,  powerful  muscles,  tendons,  etc.  The  processes  of 
the  bones  are  better  developed,  and  give  a  greater  mechan- 
ical advantage  to  the  muscles  than  in  the  case  of  common 
country  horses. 

The  power  of  a  horse  increases  with  his  size,  provided 
the  relative  proportion  of  the  parts  and  the  general  com- 
pactness are  maintained.  This,  however,  is  rarely  the 
case.  There  is  a  certain  size  beyond  which  the  parts  do 
not  seem  to  grow  in  due  proportion  to  each  other.  Very 
large  horses  are  seldom  fit  for  saddle  purposes. 

Without  good  structural  formation  strength  must  not 
be  expected,  and  even  with  it,  do  not  expect  all  the  desir- 
able qualities. 

There  are  some  relations  between  parts  of  the  horse 
which  it  is  well  to  consider  as  an  aid  in  training  the  eye. 
In  this  way  it  may  be  decided  at  a  glance  if  a  horse  ap- 
proaches the  average  form  accepted  as  most  suitable  for 
service. 


30  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

RELATIVE    PROPORTIONS. 

The  horse  shown  in  Plate  IV  was  selected  to  be  photo- 
graphed because  of  his  well  earned  reputation  as  an  all- 
around  cavalry  horse  and  weight  carrier.* 

The  position  is  not  constrained;  it  is  the  natural  and 
free  position  assumed  by  the  horse  without  assistance  or 
interference.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  frontal  line  of 
the  head  is  nearly  or  quite  parallel  to  the  slope  of  the 
shoulders. 

Now  taking  the  head,  measured  from  the  poll  to  the 
extremity  of  the  upper  lip,  as  a  unit,  it  will  be  found  to 
enter  as  a  factor  quite  accurately  into  several  important 
measurements.  The  head  should  be  measured  as  a  shoe- 
maker does  the  foot,  and  not  with  a  tape-line. 

This  length  of  the  head  A  B  is  almost  exactly  equal 
to  the  distance:  i.  From  the  top  of  the  withers  to  the 
point  of  the  shoulder  CD;  2.  From  the  lowest  point  of 


*The  horse,  "Deadwood,"  pictured  in  Plate  IV,  is  thirteen  years  old, 
and  has  been  in  service  since  August  7,  1886.  He  is  fifteen  hands  high, 
appears  perfectly  sound,  moves  at  a  walk,  trot  and  gallop  Avithout  any  stiff- 
ness or  peculiarities  of  gaits,  and  is  a  clean-cut,  strong  and  enduring  cavalry 
horse.  At  the  time  this  photograph  was  taken  the  horse  was  very  fat. 

He  was  ridden  by  the  orderly  for  the  quartermaster  of  the  Eighth  Cav- 
alry on  the  march  from  Fort  Davis,  Texas,  to  Fort  Meade,  South  Dakota, 
in  1887,  a  distance  of  about  nineteen  hundred  miles.  As  the  orderly  accom- 
panied the  quartermaster  in  looking  for  camping  ground,  purchasing  forage, 
and  riding  back  and  forth  to  the  wagon  train,  it  is  a  low  estimate  to  place 
the  distance  covered  by  this  animal  at  twenty-five  hundred  miles.  He  has 
done  steady  duty  in  field  and  garrison  ever  since,  and  he  has  undoubtedly 
been  enabled  to  do  this  because  his  form  is  perfectly  adapted  to  the  weight- 
carrying  requirements  of  cavalry  service. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  31 

the  back  to  the  abdomen  EF;  3.  From  the  point  of  the 
stifle  to  the  point  of  the  hock  //;  4.  From  the  point  of 
the  hock  to  the  lower  line  of  the  hoof  J K;  5.  From  the 
shoulder  blade  to  the  point  of  the  haunch  L  M. 

PLATE  II. 


Two  and  one-half  times  the  head  gives:  i.  The  height 
of  the  withers  C  above  the  ground;  2.  The  height  of  the 
top  of  the  croup  above  the  ground;  3.  Very  nearly  the 
length  from  point  of  the  shoulder  to  point  of  buttock  DH. 

Do  not  expect  every  horse  to  fill  these  conditions,  but 


32  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

remember  that  a  small  fraction  of  the  length  of  the  head 
added  to  his  height  or  length,,  will  at  once  give  the  animal 
an  abnormal  appearance.  The  length  or  height  of  a*  horse 
will  seldom  or  never  equal  three  head  lengths. 

If  proportions  are  satisfactory,  examine  the  muscles  in 
a  general  way  to  form  an  estimate  as  to,  the  probable  en- 
durance of  the  animal.  Firm,  dense,  compact  and  clearly- 
defined  muscles  are  requisite  for  weight  carriers-. 

The  examination  should  next  take  a  more  detailed- 
character,  remembering  always,  that  although  race  horses 
may  run  and  win  in  all  forms,  cavalry  service  demands  a 
marked  degree  of  uniformity,  and  the  higher  the  grade  of 
excellence  secured  the  more  economical  and  enduring  will 
be  the  results. 

Before  proceeding  with  the  examination,  the  age  and 
height  of  the  animal  should  be  taken,  to  determine  whether 
these  come  within  the  limits  specified  in  each  contract  or 
letter  of  instructions.  Perfection  of  form  is  usually  found 
to  a  greater  extent  in  horses  under  fifteen-and-a-half  hands 
high,  than  in  those  of  greater  height. 

The  Head. —  When  carefully  observed,  a  great  variation 
is  seen  to  exist  in  the  size  and  shape  of  the  heads  of 
horses.  A  wide  forehead  is  nearly  always  accompanied  by 
large  nostrils,  well  situated  eyes,  ears  small  and  widely 
separated,  distance  from  the  eye  to  the  angle  of  the  jaw 
great,  large  space  under  and  between  the  jaws,  head  short 
and  not  of  great  volume.  On  the  contrary,  a  narrow  fore- 
head is  accompanied  generally  by  small  nostrils,  eyes  but 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


33 


partly  open  and  appearing  small,  ears  large  and  close 
together,  and  with  but  small  space  under  and  between 
the  jaws. 

The  head  first  described  is  the  one  best  adapted  to  the 
saddle  horse,  for  the  second  or  coarse  head  acts  like  a 
heavy  weight  at  the  end  of  a  long  lever,  bringing  forward 
the  center  of  gravity,  and  making  the  horse  heavy  in  hand. 

The  nostrils  should  be  large,  and   occupy  nearly  the 

whole    of   the 

lower  part  of 

the  facial  struc- 

ture,   because 

the  horse 
•  breathes  e  n  - 

tirely  through 

his    nostrils, 

and  not  par- 
1  tially  through 

his    mouth    as 

man  does.     The  coarse  horse  has  contracted  nostrils  with 

overlapping   borders,   and   the-  entrances  are   beset  with 

bristly  hairs. 

The  mouth  should  be  small,  with  thin,  firm  lips.  The 
eyes  should  be  large  and  mild,  with  fine  eyelids.  The 
ears  should  be  delicate  and  pointed,  and  should  move 
backward  and  forward  with  a  quick,  firm  motion,  without 
the  least  appearance  of  flabbiness. 


\ 


Fig.   /. 


34 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


The  eyes  and  ears  indicate  fairly  well  the  temper  of 
the  horse. 

Figures  i  and  2  represent  two  entirely  different  types 

of  good  heads. 
The  first  has  the 
depression  in 
the  frontal  line 
known  as  "dish- 
faced,"  and  an 
unusual  depth 
from  the  eye  to 
the  point  of  the 
jaw.  The  sec- 
ond is  the  head 
of  a  very  fine 
saddle  animal, 
cha  racterized 
by  docility 
and  intelligence,  and  perfection  as  to  gaits. 

The  Xcck. —  The  neck  should  be  examined  as  to  its  form, 
length,  carriage,  and  mode  of  attachment  to  the  head.  The 
neck  is  called  straight  when  its  borders  are  rectilinear ; 
arched,  w^hen  its  upper  border  is  more  or  less  convex 
throughout ;  ewe-necked,  when  its  upper  border  is  concave. 
.The  long  neck  accords  well  with  extreme  speed,  the 
short  neck  with  power,  and  the  medium  neck  for  all 
around  saddle  purposes,  and  in  which  class  there  is  a  wide 
range  of  intermediate  forms  (Figs.  1,2,  and  3).  Very  long 


Fig.    2 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  35 

necks  are  too  mobile,  while  very  short  ones  are  not  supple 
enough.  Very  long  necks  also  have  the  disadvantage  of 
over-weighting  the  forehand  by  bringing  forward  the 
center  of  gravity.  The  volume,  of  the  neck  should  not  be 
too  large,  but  harmoniously  proportioned  to  the  other  parts 
of  the  body. 

The  class  of  neck  possessed  by  a  horse  is  not  altered  by 
the  addition  of  fat.  A  fine,  silky  mane  characterizes  well- 
bred  horses ;  and  coarse,  long  and  stiff  manes,  common 
horses. 

The  Withers. —  The  withers  comprise  the  region  between 
the  shoulders  in  front  of  the  back,  and  in  consequence  of 
their  prominence  and  anatomical  complexity  are  exposed 
to  wounds  of  variable  gravity.  As  many  of  the  muscles, 
ligaments  and  tendons  which  control  the  motion  of  the 
forehand  are  attached  here,  a  considerable  degree  of  eleva- 
tion is  necessary  in  order  to  afford  good  leverage,  as  well  as 
to  give  due  length  to  the  shoulder.  Horses  with  very  fine, 
high  withers,  while  pleasant  to  ride,  are  unsuited  for  hard 
service  with  packed  saddles.  Elevated  withers  are  usually 
accompanied  by  long,  sloping  shoulders  and  a  rather  deep 
chest.  High,  thin  withers  are  usually  accompanied  by  flat 
muscles  about  and  in  rear  of  the  shoulder  blade,  where  the 
front  end  of  the  side  bars  of  military  saddles  are  calculated 
to  rest ;  this  flatness  allows  the  saddle  to  slip  unduly  for- 
ward, which  is  very  objectionable.  (Fig.  3.) 

Horses  with  low  withers,  not  well  defied  or  outlined, 
.are  not  suited  for  heavy,  packed  saddles,  because  such  a 


36  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

formation  permits  the  saddle  to  slip  forward  and  bruise 
the  parts  near  the  top  of  the  shoulder  blade,  and  this  dis- 
placement also  causes  cincha  sores  close  to  the  fore  legs. 


Fig.  3. 

The  Shoulder. —  The  shoulder  should  be  sloping  and 
comparatively  long.  (Plate  IV.)  If  the  shoulder  blade  is 
long,  broad  and  well  sloped,  the  saddle  will  sit  properly  in 
its  place  ;  while  if  short  and  upright,  the  saddle  will  have 
a  tendency  to  work  forward  on  the  withers.  Upright  or 
straight  shoulders  are  very  undesirable  in  saddle  horses,. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  37 

although  perfectly  suitable  for  purposes  of  draught.  Un- 
due thickness  through  the  shoulders  increases  the  weight 
of  the  forehand,  and  consequent  wear  on  the  fore  legs, 
without  any  compensating  advantages. 

While  all  authorities  agree  that  a  sloping  shoulder  is 
essential  in  a  good  saddle  horse,  and  many  speak  of  it  in 
an  off-hand  way,  it  will  be  found  most  puzzling  to  deter- 
mine exactly  how  to  class  shoulders  in  fat  horses. 

In  examining  this  part,  it  is  proper  to  consider  not  only 
the  portion  occupied  by  the  shoulder  blade,  but  also  the 
short  bone  (humerus)  connecting  the  shoulder  blade  with 
the  upper  bone  of  the  leg.  This  short  bone  slopes  back- 
ward and  downward,  and  as  the  shoulder  blade  is  better 
placed  the  more  it  slants ;  this  short  bone,  on  the  contrary, 
is  considered  best  when  it  slopes  the  least.  It  is  the  degree 
of  slope  of  this  short  bone  that  causes  the  difference  in  the 
appearance  in  various  horses  as  to  the  way  the  fore  leg  is 
set  on ;  in  some  animals  it  seems  to  spring  from  the  front 
line  of  the  chest,  and  in  others  several  inches  back  of  that 
part.  If  the  shoulder  is  very  straight,  and  the  horse  be 
otherwise  acceptable,  the  best  plan  is  to  mount  him;  if  he 
is,  as  he  ought  to  be  with  such  a  shoulder,  very  rough, 
reject  him. 

The  Back. —  The  back  may  be  straight,  convex  or  roach- 
backed,  or  concave  or  sway-backed.  The  straight  back  is 
a  sign  of  strength,  and  with  this  conformation  the  saddle 
will  rest  in  a  good  position.  The  roach-back,  while  strong, 
is  unsightly,  and  contrary  to  free  and  rapid  motion.  The 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


sway-back  may  be  congenital  or  acquired,  and  is  the  most 
faulty  of  all  for  saddle   purposes,  because   tlie  weight  is 

almost  entirely  sustained 
by  the  ligaments,  and  the 
saddle  is  certain  to  bore  in- 
to the  muscles  of  the  back. 
Sometimes  the  line  of 
the  back  is  oblique  from 
front  to  rear  or  rear  to 
front.  These  forms  entail 
an  unequal  distribution  of 
the  weight  of  the  body  up- 
on the  four  extremities. 
The  center  of  gravity  is 
carried  towards  the  fore 
limbs  when  the  horse  is 
higher  behind  than  in 
front. 

The  back  should  not  be 
over  long.  Short,  straight 
backs  are  the  strongest  for 
weight  carriers,  but  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  length  is 
essential  to  much  speed; 

moreover  a  horse  with  a  very  short  back  is  apt  to  over- 
reach. 

The  Ribs. —  The  ribs  should  have  a  well  denned  con- 
vexity from  above  to  below.     This  curvature,  taken  with 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


39 


full  development  of  length,  and  definite  separation  from 
each  other,  constitute  three  desirable  points  of  excellence. 
Flatness,  shortness  and 
nearness  together  are 
undesirable,  because 
they  limit  the  volume  of 
the  chest,  and  character- 
ize the  horse  as  short- 
winded  and  deficient  in 
power. 

The  Chest. —  The  chest 
should  have  great  capac- 
ity in  depth  without  ex- 
cessive width,  and  should 
be  plump  in  front.  Nar- 
row-chested horses  lack 
endurance.  The  capacity 
of  the  lungs  is  marked 
by  the  size  of  the  chest 
at  the  girth.  While  ex- 
cessive width  in  front  is 
not  desirable  for  rapid 
gaits,  such  form  is  well 
adapted  to  carrying  great 

weight.  The  fore  legs  should  spring  from  the  chest  per- 
pendicularly as  viewed  from  in  front.  Fig.  4  is  a  front 
view  of  the  horse  shown  in  Plate  IV. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


The  Fore  Leg. —  The  upper  bone  of  the  leg  should  be 
long  in  proportion  to  the  lower  or  cannon  bone.  This  bone 
cannot  well  be  too  large  or  too  fully  supplied  with  muscles. 

When  the  horse  is  exam- 
ined in  profile  this  bone 
should  be  vertical,  and 
when  viewed  from  in  front 
parallel  to  the  median  plane 
of  the  body.  The  knee 
should  be  wide  from  side 
to  side,  and  thick  from  be- 
fore to  behind.  The  ver- 
tical direction  of  the  upper 
bone,  and  cannon  or  lower 
bone,  should  be  maintained 
at  the  knee.  (Fig.  4.) 

While  a  contrary  condi- 
tion may  be  congenital, 
and  therefore  not  an  un- 
soundness,  since  it  does  not 
interfere  with  firm  and  free 
movements,  still  a  horse 
over  in  the  knees,  or  knee- 
sprung,  is  not  desirable  for 
service.  (Fig.  5.)  The  opposite  condition,  known  as  "calf" 
or  "buck"  knees,  is  decidedly  objectionable,  owing  to  the 
undue  strain  brought  on  the  ligaments  and  tendons. 

The  leg  just  below  the  knee  should  not  be  very  small 


Fig.  6. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  41 

or  "tied  in,"  which  indicates  a  weakness  of  the  part,  but 
should  be^as  large  as  the  other  portions  of  the  limb  in  that 
vicinity.  (Fig.  6.) 

The  large  or  cannon  bone,  between  the  knee  and  fet- 
lock, cannot  be  too  short  or 
too  strong.  It  should  be 
straight,  as  any  deviation 
from  a  straight  line  is  both 
a  sign  and  cause  of  weak- 
ness. The  fetlock,  consist- 
ing of  the  upper  and  lower 
pastern  bones,  should  be  of 
moderate  length.  If  the 
fetlocks  are  very  long,  they 
are  necessarily  weak,  and 
there  will  be  Undue  strain 
on  the  ligaments  and  ten- 
dons; if  they  are  short,  the 
horse  will  be  unpleasant  to 
ride  on  account  of  the  con- 
cussion to  which  the  up- 
right formation  gives  rise. 
The  feet  should  be  of 

medium    size,    due   regard 

•*  *&  •  /  • 
being  had  to  the  size  and 

shape  of  the  horse,  and  there  should  be  no  visible  differ- 
ence in  the  feet  as  to  size  and  form.  They  should  be 
neither  very  upright  nor  too  flat.  The  front  feet  being 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


on  the  same  line,  the  distance  between  them  should  gen- 
erally be  equal  to  the  width  of  one  foot  from  quarter  to 
quarter. 

The   introduction    of   draught  blood  in  many  parts  of 

the  country  has  brought 
into  the  market  a  great 
many  medium  sized  horses 
with  large  feet.  Ordinar- 
ily a  large  foot  is  an  indi- 
cation that  the  horse  has 
been  reared  on  moist,  soft 
pastures,  and  such  feet  are 
almost  sure  to  deteriorate 
rapidly  when  put  to  service 
on  hard  roads  at  any  but 
a  slow  gait. 

Horses  whose  hoofs  are 
naturally  small  and  hard 
are  better  prepared  to  with- 
stand the  effects  of  warm, 
dry  stables,  or  long  marches 
over  rough  or  dry  country. 
They  have  less  bulk  and  weight  to  lift  at  each  step;  their 
action  under  the  saddle  is  more  nimble  and  pleasant,  and 
the  pounding  received  by  the  feet  is  not  so  apt  to  be 
severe,  because  horses  of  this  class  usually  travel  close  to 
the  ground,  while  horses  with  large  or  flat  feet  generally 
lift  their  feet  high. 


Fig.   8. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  43 

A  contracted  foot  must  not  be  mistaken  for  a  naturally 
small  foot. 

Some  horses  toe  in  ( Fig.  7  )  and  some  turn  out  their 
toes  (Fig.  8).  Both  are  objec- 
tionable in  cavalry  horses. 
Sometimes  a  horse  toes  in  more 
with  one  foot  than  another,  and 
breaks  down  first  on  the  one 
which  turns  in  most.  The  horse 
which  turns  out  his  toes  is  apt 
to  " paddle"  when  in  motion, 
and  his  hocks  are  likely  to  turn 
in  too  much. 

The  hind  feet  are  usually 
more  upright  than  the  fore  feet, 
and  are  much  less  subject  to  dis- 
ease, injury  or  mal-direction. 
The  same  remarks  as  to  size  and 
condition  of  the  fore  feet  are 
applicable  in  general  to  the  hind 
feet.  If  the  toes  show  signs  of 
striking  the  shoes  of  the  front 
feet,  producing  in  motion  the 
sound  called  " clicking,"  the 
horse  will  not  be  satisfactory 
for  marches  at  a  trot  under  a  heavy  weight. 

The  Hind  Quarters  Generally. —  The  hips  should  not  be 
ragged.      High  hips  are  not  only  unsightly,  but  are  apt 


Fig.  Q. 


44 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


to  be  weak,  for  the  reason  that  their  prominence  may  be 
due  to  narrowness  of  the  loins.  The  loins  should  be  large, 
well  arched,  and  fully  furnished  with  muscle.  The  thighs 
should  be  deep  and  full,  but  with  sufficient  interval  to 

prevent  friction.  The  ab- 
sence of  muscular  develop- 
ment known  as  " split  up 
behind  "  is  very  objectionable. 
Fig.  9  is  a  rear  view  of  the 
horse  shown  in  Plate  IV  as  a 
typical  weight  carrier. 

The  upper  bone  of  the 
hind  quarters,  which  articu- 
lates at  the  stifle  with  the  up- 
per bone  of  the  hind  leg, 
should  be  long  and  lie 
obliquely  forward  ;  the  upper 
bone  of  the  hind  leg  should 
lie  obliquely  back  so  as  to 
bring  the  hocks  into  their 
proper  place.  The  stifle 
should  be  prominent  and  well 
defined ;  it  should  lie  close  to 
the  abdomen,  and.be  slightly  deviated  outward. 

The  hock  should  be  neatly  outlined,  wide  and  thick. 
Large  bones  are  usually  accompanied  by  strong  tendons 
and  ligaments.  The  leg  below  the  hock  should  incline 
l)ut  little  if  at  all  under  the  body;  if  inclined  too  much 


Fig.   10. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


45 


the  liability  to  strain  on  the  ligaments  and  tendons  be- 
comes great.  If  the  leg  below  the  hock  is  perpendicular, 
the  conformation  is  favorable  to  speed,  because  the  foot 
on  arriving  on  the  ground 
is  strongly  flexed  upon  the 
leg,  which  gives  the  hock 
energetic  impulsion,  and 
admits  of  long  strides.  If 
the  lower  part  of  the  leg  be 
inclined  under  the  body,  it 
not  only  affects  the  speed 
by  diminishing  the  step, 
but  increases  the  weight 
borne  by  the  hind  quarters, 
and  causes  a  considerable 
part  of  the  muscular  effort 
of  impulsion  to  be  ex- 
pended in  lifting  the  body, 
instead  of  carrying  it  di- 
rectly forward. 

The  hocks  should  also 
be  viewed  from  behind 
with  reference  to  their  par- 
allelism to  the  median 
plane  of  the  body.  The 
hocks  may  turn  towards 
one  another  behind,  giving 


46  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

the  horse  the  appearance  called  "knock-kneed"  in  manr 
and  "cow-hocked"  in  the  horse  (Fig.  10).  If  the  points 
of  the  hocks  are  turned  out,  the  appearance  is  similar  to 
TDOW  legs  in  man.  Both  forms  are  objectionable  for  many 
reasons. 

Doubts  sometimes  arise  as  to  whether  certain  forms  of 
•curby  hocks  and  spavins  (Fig.  11)  are  really  to  be  re- 
garded as  unsound ;  in  all  such  cases  the  inspector  should 
reject  the  animal  for  saddle  purposes  if  the  veterinarian 
does  not  feel  justified  in  doing  so. 

The  Tail. —  The  dock  should  be  large  and  muscular. 
The  tail  should  be  carried  firmly,  and  well  away  from  the 
hind  quarters.  The  tail  is  usually  set  on  much  highe^ 
and  is  more  ornamental  in  well  bred  than  under  bred 
horses.  The  hair  of  the  former  is  fine  and  scanty ;  in  the 
latter  it  is  frequently  thick,  coarse  or  curly.  When  the 
liorse  has  considerable  slope  at  the  croup  and  his  tail  is  set 
on  low  down  he  is  characterized  as  "goose  rumped." 

The  Body. —  If  from  want  of  proper  length  and  con- 
vexity of  the  ribs  the  circumference  decreases  rapidly 
from  the  forehand  to  the  rear  (Fig.  3),  the  cincha,  and 
consequently  the  saddle,  will  slip  back  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  necessitate  breast  straps.  Such  horses  are  very  un- 
satisfactory, and  no  amount  of  good  points  compensates 
for  this  defective  girth.  This  form  does  not  possess  an 
aptitude  for  retaining  flesh  under  short  rations  and  hard 
work,  very  essential  qualifications  in  cavalry  horses. 

Upon  completion  of  this  examination,  have  the  horse 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  47 

led  at  a  walk  on  a  hard  road  bed,  and  view  his  action  from 
in  front  and  behind.  Repeat  this  at  a  trot,  viewed  as 
before.  Now  have  a  saddle  and  bridle  put  on  the  horse, 
and  note  the  disposition  of  the  animal  while  this  is  being 
done.  Have  a  rider  mount  and  gallop  the  horse,  so  that 
he  may  be  viewed  as  at  a  walk  and  trot.  It  is  usual  at 
this  time  to  have  the  horse  galloped  fast  for  several 
hundred  yards  to  enable  the  veterinary  surgeon  to  ex-' 
amine  his  respiration  and  wind. 

The  entire  examination  should  be  made  without  whips, 
noise  or  excitement  of  any  kind.  This  is  difficult  to  en- 
force at  public  stock  yards  and  stables,  but  should  be  insisted 
upon. 

In  examining  the  horse  in  motion  it  should  be  ob- 
served if  his  movements  at  all  gaits  are  regular,  free  and 
natural.  .  The  artificial  gaits  of  the  trained  saddle  horse 
are  not  only  of  no  value  to  cavalry,  but  are  an  absolute 
disadvantage,  for  when  animals  with  these  gaits  are  ridden 
by  guides  it  is  impossible  to  regulate  by  them.  It  should 
be  demanded  that  the  horse  walk,  trot  and  gallop  without 
defects  or  peculiarities  of  gaits. 

If  the  horse  is  lame  in  the  slightest  degree,  even  from 
an  apparently  fresh  and  insignificant  wound,  the  examina- 
tion should  not  be  continued. 

If  the  horse  throws  his  feet  out  of  the  vertical  plane  at 
a  walk  and  trot  —  usually  called  "paddling"-  — or  if  he 
interferes  sufficiently  to  cut  himself,  he  should  not  be 
accepted.  A  horse  which  interferes  when  in  good  con- 


48  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

dition  without  a  load  is  apt  to  be  worse  when  thin  in  flesh 
and  fatigued  from  packing  a  heavy  weight  on  the  march. 
The  " paddling"  movement  is  not  only  unsightly,  but 
occasions  fatigue  and  an  unnecessary  waste  of  energy. 

Some  horses,  apparently  sound  and  without  vice  or 
fault,  will  still  be  far  from  desirable  cavalry  horses.  If, 
for  instance,  a  horse  appears  clumsy  and  rough,  especially 
at  a  trot,  the  inspector  should  mount  him  and  give  him  a 
thorough  trial,  else  he  may  pass  into  the  ranks  a  rough 
animal  whose  harsh  gaits  will  cause  more  discontent  than 
he  is  worth. 

Disappointment  may  come  because  an  animal  whose 
form  justifies  the  highest  expectations  may  prove  without 
the  courage  or  ability  to  perform  according  to  nature's 
gifts,  but  there  will  be  some  satisfaction  in  the  knowledge 
that  those  whose  forms  indicated  unfitness  have  not  been 
made  a  burden  upon  the  government. 

The  principal  points  of  the  horse,  affecting  his  adapta- 
bility for  cavalry  service,  are  all  that  it  has  been  attempted 
to  portray.  A  more  complete  theoretical  knowledge  may 
be  obtained  from  many  scientific  books  on  the  subject,  but 
it  is  best  not  to  overburden  the  memory  at  first.  To 
apply  theoretical  knowledge,  examine  the  same  horse  re- 
peatedly and  at  intervals ;  seek  opinions  and  advice  of 
those  who  already  have  acquired  practical  knowledge. 

In  examining  horses  your  attention  will  always  be 
called  to  the  fine  points,  of  which  most  horses  possess 
some.  After  the  eye  has  become  trained,  a  horse  whose 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  49 

defects  of  detail  predominate  will  at  once  show  a  want  of 
harmony  of  the  whole.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  his  defects 
are  few,  the  impression  conveyed  will  be  harmonious.  It 
is  then  only  necessary  to  determine  if  any  of  the  defects  of 
form  are  such  as  to  be  a  source  of  weakness  when  the 
horse  is  put  to  the  use  for  which  he  is  to  be  bought. 

It  has  been  the  main  object  in  this  chapter  to  give  the 
young  officer  a  knowledge  of  the  various  forms  of  horses, 
and  of  the  relative  value  of  different  points.  Something 
more  is  desirable,  for  it  is  not  always  practicable  to  have 
the  professional  assistance  of  a  veterinarian.  Cavalry  offi- 
cers and  quartermasters  especially  should  be  able  to  make 
an  examination  of  the  horse  for  soundness  without  assist- 
ance, except  as  to  certain  occult  forms  of  disease.  The 
method  prescribed  herein  is  in  accordance  with  the  best 
practice  of  veterinary  surgeons,  and  if  closely  followed 
will  generally  give  satisfaction. 

In  all  examinations  of  animals  for  public  service,  it 
should  be  kept  in  mind  that  endurance  is  limited  by  the 
weakest  part,  and  that  while  in  private  life  such  care  may 
be  bestowed  upon  a  horse  as  to  cause  a  weak  member  to 
last  as  long  as  the  more  sound  ones,  this  must  not  be 
expected  in  actual  service. 

EXAMINATION    FOR    SOUNDNESS. 

i.  Examine  the  animal  as  he  stands  in  his  stall  to  see 
if  he  points  either  fore  foot,  or  favors  any  leg.  Observe 
the  position  of  the  posterior  extremities  when  standing; 


50  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

move  him  from  side  to  side  and  notice  whether  he  steps 
upon  his  toe.  Observe  whether  he  cribs  the  wood  work; 
holds  on  to  the  manger  or  halter  ropes  or  straps  to  suck 
wind;  bites  or  kicks;  weaves;  or  whether  he  exhibits 
any  glaring  unsoundness  forbidding  further  examination. 
Notice  the  pupils  of  the  eyes. 


2.  Lead  the  animal  out  into  the  light,  and  observe  if 
both  pupils  contract  evenly;  if  not  suspect  defective  vision. 
Stand  in  front  and  compare  the  eyes,  as  to  whether  one  is 
smaller  than  the  other;  whether  there  exist  any  signs  of 
an  operation  having  been  performed;  any  signs  of  oph- 
thalmia, white  specks  in  the  corner,  torn  eyelid,  warts  or 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


other  abnormal  conditions.  Wave  the  hand  gently  to  and 
fro  in  front  of  the  eye ;  if  the  animal  does  not  instinctively 
close  the  eye  upon  the  approach  of  the  hand,  proceed  care- 
fully to  determine  whether  or  not  sight  has  been  lost. 
Examine  the  ears  for  cuts  and  slits  made  by  sticking  the 
head  into  barbed  wire  fences. 
If  the  ears  hang  flabbily,  or 
do  not  move  quickly  and  rig- 
idly at  intervals,  something  is 
wrong ;  observe  carefully  the 

A 

base  of  the  ear  and  vicinity 
for  canker.  Look  the  horse 
squarely  in  the  face  to  see  if 
there  is  any  abnormal  devel- 
opment about  the  head. 
Look  for  evidences  of  ulcer- 
ated teeth,  as  indicated  by 
offensive  odors,  and  swelling 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  facial 
sinuses  and  of  the  bones  of 
the  lower  jaw.  Open,  the  ani- 
mal's mouth,  and  observe  if 
all  the  teeth,  molars  as  well 
as  incisors,  are  intact.  Examine  carefully  for  parrot 
mouth,  lacerated  tongue,  abscesses,  bit  bruises  on  the  bars, 
and  the  teeth  to  determine  age.  Examine  the  nostrils  for 
polypi,  healthy  color,  ulcers  indicating  glanders,  and  for 
offensive  discharges.  Feel  under  the  jaw  for  enlargement 


Fig.  13. 


52  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

of  the  lymphatic  gland.  Examine  the  region  of  the 
parotid  gland  for  evidences  of  inflammation,  and  also  for 
fistula  of  its  duct.  Look  for  farcy  buds  on  the  neck  and 
sides  of  the  face.  Raise  the  jugular  vein  to  see  if  it  is 
intact ;  observe  if  any  inflammation  of  the  vein  exists. 


Pass  the  hand  from  the  face  down  the  neck  to  the  withers 
for  evidences  of  poll  evil,  bruises,  or  abscesses.  Place  the 
ear  to  the  trachea,  to  observe  if  the  sound  of  breathing  is 
clear  and  even. 

3.  Pass  to  the  left  side  of  the  animal  and  examine  the 
withers  for  fistula  (Fig.  12  ),  and  the  back  for  sit-fasts,  or 
saddle  sores.  Observe  the  shoulder  for  signs  of  wasting 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  53 

away  of  the  muscles,  enlargement  of  the  joint,  heat  or 
tenderness.  Feel  the  point  of  the  elbow  for  capped  elbow. 
Examine  the  near  fore  leg  with  the  hand,  looking  at  the 
off  leg  also  for  broken  knees  ( Fig.  1 3 ),  speedy  cut,  splints 
(Fig.  14),  side  bones,  ring  bones,  brushing,  sand  cracks, 
seedy  toe,  false  quarter,  scratches,  grease,  wind  galls,  heat 
about  the  fetlocks  or  coronet,  and  scars  from  wire  fence 
wounds.  Take  up  the  foot  and  examine  for  indications  of 
laminitis,  conti  action,  quittor  or  flatness ;  to  see  if  the  bars 
have  been  cut  away ;  whether  there  is  any  offensive  odor 
of  the  frog,  and  to  see  if  there  is  any  peculiarity  about  the 
shoe,  made  necessary  by  the  form  of  the  foot,  or  the  action 
of  the  horse.  See  if  there  is  any  appreciable  difference  in 
the  size  or  shape  of  the  feet.  Examine  the  tendons  for 
evidences  of  sprains. 

4.  Listen  to  the  heart  to  determine  if  its  beats  are 
regular.  Observe  the  breathing  to  determine  if  the  inspi- 
rations and  expirations  are  equal.  If  inspiration  is  accom- 
plished with  one  effort,  and  expiration  with  two,  called 
"double  breathing,"  the  horse  is  unsound.  This  may  be 
observed  by  watching  the  abdomen.  Examine  the  abdo- 
men for  hernia.  Pass  the  hand  along  under  the  chest  and 
abdomen  to  feel  for  cincha  sores  and  shoe  bruises  occa- 
sioned by  a  faulty  method  of  lying  down.  Have  an  at- 
tendant hold  up  a  fore  foot  while  an  examination  is  made 
of  geldings  to  see  if  castration  has  been  properly  per- 
formed, and  that  no  signs  of  scirrhous  cord  exist.  Examine 
the  stifle  joint,  and  pass  the  hand  along  down  the  near 


54 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


relative    size   of  the   hocks 


hind  legs  to  the  hocks,  comparing  at  the  same  time  the 

examine  for  bone  and  bog 
spavin,  thoroughpin,  capped 
hock,  curb  (Figs,  n  and  15), 
and  skin  disease  in  the  hol- 
low of  the  hocks  (sallenders). 
Examine  the  lower  limb  and 
foot  as  in  the  case  of  the  fore 
leg,  except  that  some  injuries 
of  the  fore  are  never  found 
in  the  hind  leg.  The  inside 
of  the  thigh  should  be  ex- 
amined for  farcy  buds.  Pass 
behind  and  compare  the  hips, 
quarters  and  buttocks;  feel 
the  tail,  and  observe  the  anus 
and  vicinity  for  injury  or  dis- 
ease. 

5.  Proceed  to  the  off  side 
and  repeat  such  part  of  the 
examination  as  may  be  neces- 
sary for  that  side.  Observe 
during  the  entire  examina- 
tion whether  any  parasites 

F'g-  15 

are  attached  to  the  skin. 

6.  Go  to  the  horse's  head,  take  hold  of  the  bridle  and 
back  him  suddenly ;  if  the  tail  is  elevated  and  the  hind 
legs  do  not  respond,  or  the  animal  should  partially  sit 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  55 

down,  or  elevate  one  of  his  limbs  suddenly,  he  is  unsound. 
Turn  him  around  suddenly  and  look  for  the  same  symptoms. 
The  horse  should  be  led  at  a  walk,  and  then  at  a  trot,  his 
action  being  carefully  noted  for  any  inequality  of  move- 
ment, which,  if  discovered,  must  be  critically  examined. 

7.  Saddle  the  horse  and  observe  if  he  gives  in  the 
loins  when  mounted,  or  shows  any  signs  of  weakness  or 
flinching.  Have  him  ridden  at  a  walk,  trot  and  gallop, 
and  watch  for  indications  of  lameness  and  peculiarities  of 
motion.  Have  him  galloped  rapidly,  up  hill  if  practicable, 
and  then  have  him  halted  suddenly ;  put  the  ear  close 
to  his  nostrils,  and  listen  to  his  respiration  for  roaring, 
whistling  or  broken  wind,  and  also  observe  if  respiration 
subsides  promptly  to  normal  or  not. 

Opinions  vary  as  to  whether  grunting  is  an  indication 
of  unsoundness,  and  many  practical  horsemen  believe  this 
trouble  changes  into  roaring.  To  be  on  the  safe  side, 
regard  it  as  evidence  of  unsoundness.  To  detect  it,  strike 
the  horse '  a  sharp  blow  with  a  whip  or  stick,  and  make 
believe  to  strike  again,  when  the  horse  will  grunt  if  affected 
with  the  ailment.  It  may  also  be  detected  by  halting 
suddenly  from  a  rapid  gait. 


III. 


AGE  OF  HORSES. 


Period  of  Longevity  or  Extreme  Age. — Mares  Live  Longer  Than  Horses. — 
"  Rising"  and  "Past"  a  Certain  Age.— Age  as  Indicated  by  the  Teeth.— 
Wolf's  Teeth.— Temporary  Teeth.— Permanent  Teeth.— The  Marks 
or  Cups.— Angle  Which  Incisors  Make  in  Coming  Together.— The 
Tusks. —  Rasping  Off  the  Corners  of  Incisors. —  Bishoping. 


The  probability  of  a  horse's  reaching  an  advanced  age 
does  not  depend  so  much  upon  race  and  breeding  as  upon 
his  care  and  surroundings.  Bad  treatment,  food  insufficient 
in  quantity  and  poor  in  quality,  alike  tend  to  shorten  the 
duration  of  the  horse's  service.  In  this  way  one  horse 
may  be  old  and  worn  out  at  twelve  or  fourteen,  while 
another  may  continue  to  render  satisfactory  service  at 
from  twenty  to  twenty-five  years  of  age. 

The  oldest  horse  at  present  in  service  known  to  the 
author  was  about  seven  years  old  in  1875,  at  which  time 
he  participated  in  a  march  from  Kansas  to  Arizona,  a  dis- 
tance of  nearly  fifteen  hundred  miles.  He  was  ridden  for 
many  years  regularly,  but  is  no  longer  fit  for  hard  marches. 
He  is  now  about  twenty-six  years  old.  There  were  several 
horses  used  in  the  Fort  Leavenworth  squadron  during  the 
past  year  which  were  more  than  twenty  years  of  age. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  57 

There  are  numerous  instances  to  substantiate  the  state- 
ment that  horses  live  to  be  thirty-five  or  forty  years  of  age. 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  cite  the  case  of  "Belle  Mosby," 
whose  photograph  is  shown  in  Fig.  16,  with  her  owner, 
JOSEPH  R.  PHILLIPS,  Company  "F,"  Eighteenth  Pennsyl- 


Fig.  16. 

vania  Cavalry,  and  the  celebrated  army  mule,  "  Mexique," 
which  died  about  1866.'* 


*The  mare  was  stolen  by  a  negro  boy  from  a  Confederate  camp  near 
Newmarket  Creek,  Va.,  in  March,  1865,  and  was  brought  across  the  creek 
to  the  camp  of  the  Eighteenth  Pennsylvania  by  means  of  a  single  twelve- 
inch  plank  walk  thrown  across  the  abutments  of  the  recently  burned  bridge. 
She  was  purchased  from  the  negro  by  Lieutenant  YOUNG  in  exchange  for 
an  overcoat.  She  soon  after  became  the  property  of  her  present  owner,  who 
used  her  in  service  for  several  months,  and  then  sent  her  home  to  his  farm. 
She  has  never  weighed  more  than  950  pounds,  and  was  worked  until  about 
six  years  ago.  Her  teeth  showed  her  to  be  five  years  old  when  brought  into 
camp,  which  makes  her  present  age  thirty-five. 

A  few  years  ago  a  petition  was  sent  to  the  War  Department  by  the  offi- 


58  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

It  is  usually  claimed  that  mares  live  longer  than  horses,. 
and  small  horses  longer  than  large  ones,  but  it  is  difficult 
to  prove  such  statements  because  all  animals  do  not  receive 
the  same  treatment.  Some  animals  lead  a  quiet  existence 
with  good  hygienic  surroundings,  and  attain  great  age, 
whereas,  had  they  been  used  in  a  city  on  stone  pavements, 
or  subjected  to  hard  campaigning  with  its  consequent  ex- 
posure and  semi-starvation,  they  would  probably  have 
fallen  victims  before  attaining  even  moderate  age. 

It  is  very  generally  accepted  as  a  fact  that  horses  which 
mature  slowly  live  longer  than  those  which  mature  rapidly, 
provided,  of  course,  they  receive  like  treatment  and  are 
not  put  to  hard  service  until  full  grown. 

The  difference  in  general  appearance  between  young 


cers  stationed  at  Mount  Vernon  Barracks,  Ala.,  stating  that  a  white  mule 
which  had  been  in  service  at  that  post  for  forty-five  years  was  about  to  be 
sold  as  unserviceable,  and  requesting  authority  to  purchase  him,  to  be  kept 
at  their  own  expense,  because  of  his  long  and  faithful  service.  The  petition 
was  endorsed  by  General  SHERMAN  as  follows  : 

"I  have  seen  that  mule,  and  whether  true  or  false,  the  soldiers  believe 
it  was  left  at  Big  Springs,  where  the  Mount  Vernon  Barracks  now  are,  at 
the  time  General  JACKSON'S  army  camped  there  —  about  1819  or  1820.  Tra- 
dition says  it  was  once  sorrel,  but  now  it  is  white  from  age.  The  Quarter- 
master's Department  will  be  chargeable  with  ingratitude  if  that  mule  is 
sold,  or  the  maintenance  of  it  thrown  on  the  charitable  officers  of  the  post. 
I  advise  it  to  be  kept  in  the  department,  fed  and  maintained  until  death. 
I  think  the  mule  was  at  Fort  Morgan,  Mobile  Point,  when  I  was  there  in 
1842." 

The  Secretary  of  War  thereupon  made  the  following  order  :  "  Let  this 
mule  be  kept  and  well  cared  for  as  long  as  he  lives." 

Secretary  LINCOLN'S  order  did  not  arrive  until  after  the  sale,  but 
"  Mexique  "  was  bought  in  and  kept  by  the  officers  until  he  died,  about  two 
years  later.  There  was  no  documentary  evidence,  but  the  history  of  this 
animal  was  traced  far  enough  to  make  him  quite  forty  years  of  age,  while 
lass  reliable  information  made  him  much  older. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


59 


and  old  horses  is  very  marked.  It  requires  but  little 
familiarity  with  horses  to  detect  the  extremes  of  age  and 
the  contrary  condition.  After  maturity,  however,  more 
reliance  is  to  be  placed  upon  the  indications  afforded  by 

the  teeth,  than 
upon  outward 
signs. 

In  order  to 
examine  the 
mouth,  the  left 
hand  should  be 
placed  upon 
the  horse's 
nose  quietly, 
while  the  right 
is  introduced 
into  the  mouth 
to  seize  the 
tongue,  which 
is  gently  drawn 
out  on  the  left 
side.  If  neces- 
sary, the  lower 
lip  may  be  held  with  the  left  hand.  ( Fig.  17).  If  the  horse 
resists,  a  fore  foot  may  be  held  up,  and,  in  rare  cases,  a 
twitch  applied  to  his  ear.  In  the  majority  of  cases  the 
incisor  teeth  may  be  examined  by  simply  inserting  the 


.  77. 


60  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

fingers  in  the  sides  of  the  mouth,  and  pressing;  the  lips 
apart  in  front  with  the  thumbs. 

Before  examining  the  teeth  in  detail,  the  lips  should 
be  parted,  and  the  angle  at  which  the  upper  and  lower 
incisors  come  together  observed.  This  angle  is  obtuse  in 
young,  and  acute  in  old  horses.  ( Figs.  1 8  and  2 1 .) 

A  horse  is  said  to  be  coming  or  rising  to  a  certain  age 
when  his  mouth  is  at  the  point  of  presenting  the  characters 
of  the  age  to  which  reference  is  made;  he  has  the  age 
when  all  the  characters  exist;  he  is  past,  when  the  char- 
acters begin  to  disappear;  thus  rising  four,  four,  a  four  year 
old  past. 

Age  as  Indicated  by  the  Teeth. —  Structural  alterations 
take  place  in  the  teeth  every  year  up  to  the  sixth ;  hence 
there  can  rarely  be  any  question  as  to  the  real  age  of  a 
horse  up  to  that  time,  as  indicated  by  the  teeth. 

After  the  horse  has  obtained  his  full  set  of  teeth  the 
.age  can  be  approximately  determined  by  the  effect  of  Avear 
in  altering  their  shape,  by  the  receding  of  the  gums,  and 
by  other  such  signs. 

Many  circumstances,  however,  often  contribute  to 
modify  the  effect  of  wear  on  the  teeth,  and  also  to  increase 
or  decrease  the  action  of  time  in  other  respects;  hence  a 
correct  estimate  of  age  can  only  be  formed  by  those  who 
have  given  to  the  subject  considerable  study. 

The  young  foal  usually  has  two,  and  sometimes  three, 
temporary  molars  in  each  jaw.  When  about  twelve  months 
old  another  molar,  a  permanent  tooth,  appears,  and  before 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  6 1 

completion  of  the  second  year  a  fifth  molar,  also  a  perma- 
nent tooth,  shows  itself. 

At  about  two-and-a-half  years  of  age  the  two  anterior 
temporary  molars  are  replaced  by  permanent  teeth,  and 
at  between  three  and  four  the  remaining  or  third  tempo- 
rary molar  is  replaced.  At  about  the  same  time  the  last 
or  sixth  permanent  molar  begins  to  appear.  Thus  when 
the  mouth  is  completed  there  are  twelve  permanent  molars 
in  each  jaw,  or  twenty-four  in  all. 

These  structural  changes  afford 'a  good  index  of  the 
age  of  the  horse  up  to  the  period  when  they  are  completed, 
namely,  four  years.  These  molars,  however,  are  seldom 
referred  to,  because  their  position  at  the  back  of  the  mouth 
renders  their  examination  inconvenient,  and  often  very 
difficult.  Nevertheless,  it  is  well  to  be  acquainted  with 
the  changes  in  the  molars,  in  case  there  should  be  any 
doubt  as  to  the  true  age  as  indicated  by  the  incisors,  up  to 
and  including  four  years. 

A  supplementary  molar,  known  as  "wolfs  tooth,"  some- 
times appears  in  either  jaw.  Such  teeth  seldom  cause  any 
inconvenience.  If  they  do  so,  they  can  easily  be  removed 
by  the  pincers,  as  they  are  only  of  a  rudimentary  character. 

The  incisors  are  six  in  number  in  each  jaw  when  the 
mouth  is  complete,  and  in  the  immediate  rear  of  these,  on 
each  side,  but  at  a  variable  distance  from  them,  appears  a 
pointed  tooth,  called  tusk.  These  begin  to  appear  at  about 
four  years,  but  are  not  fully  developed  until  the  last  per- 


62 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


manent  incis- 
or is  more  or 

?  less  up.  These 
tusks      are 
rarely    found 
in  mares. 
Temporary 

=  incisors,  call- 
ed milk  teeth, 
are  easily  dis- 
tinguished 
from  perma- 
nent incisors, 

a  being  small- 
er, whiter, 
and  having 
more  distinct 
necks.  They 
are  smooth 

*  externally, 
and   grooved 
inside.   Their 
fangs     are 
small,     and 
have   but   lit- 

*  tie     attach- 
ment   to    the 
gums.     The 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  63 

jaws    are    plump,    fleshy    and    round,   and    the    teeth    are 
.arranged  in  something  like  a  semi-circle. 

Permanent  teeth  on  the  other  hand  are  larger,  broader, 
wider  in  their  necks,  grooved  externally,  and  smooth  inter- 


Fig.   1 8 .     (  Four  years.} 

nally,  and  more  discolored  than  milk  teeth.  This  discolora- 
tion is  due  to  the  lodgement  of  the  juices  and  other  mat- 
ters connected  with  the  food  in  the  grooves.  The  plump- 
ness and  circularity  of  the  part  of  the  jaw  containing  the 
incisors  is  less  than  in  the  younger  animal,  and  it  gradually 


64  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

decreases,  until  in  old  age  the  teeth  are  arranged  in  nearly 
a  straight  line. 

Temporary  or  milk  teeth  (incisors)  are  in  the  gums  in 
a  rudimentary  state  when  the  foal  is  born,  and  they  appear 
from  time  to  time  during  the  first  year,  at  the  end  of 
which  period  the  yearling  mouth  is  complete  in  all  six 
incisors.  Up  to  this  time  the  foal  may  be  distinguished 
by  his  woolly  tail.  The  teeth  are  very  close  together,  and 
show  no  signs  of  wear.  The  corner  teeth  are  mere  shells. 
(Figs.  8,  9,  10,  Plate  V.) 

At  two  years  of  age  the  inner  wall  of  the  corner  teeth 
has  grown  up  level  with  the  outer  wall.  The  center  teeth 
show  considerable  signs  of  wear,  and  all  the  teeth  appear 
somewhat  smaller  than  they  did  in  the  yearling.  They 
also  appear  somewhat  wider  apart  at  their  necks  on  account 
of  the  gradual  growth  of  the  jaw  in  width. 

A  few  months  before  three  years  old  the  horse  sheds 
the  two  center  milk  teeth,  which  are  replaced  by  perma- 
nent incisors.  Thus  at  three  years  the  jaw  contains  two 
center  permanent  and  two  milk  teeth  on  each  side.  (Fig. 
n,  Plate  V.) 

A  few  months  before  four,  the  next  two  milk  teeth  are 
shed  and  replaced  by  permanent  teeth,  the  jaw  now  con- 
taining four  permanent  and  two  milk  teeth.  (Fig.  12, 
Plate  V,  and  Fig.  18,  page  63.) 

The  tusks  appear  in  that  part  of  the  lower  jaw,  on  each 
side,  between  the  incisors  and  molars,  at  about  four,  and 
continue  to  grow  until  the  horse  is  five  years  old  or  past. 


rTJII7BE-SlTY 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND 


The  new  tusk  is  quite  sharp  at  the  point  when  it  first 
appears,  and  at  five  there  is  a  slight  bend  inward,  forming 
a  hook  at  the  top.  This  gradually  wears  off,  and  each 
succeeding  year  the  tusk  becomes  rounder  and  more  bluntr. 
and  its  upper  portion  wears  off. 


fig.  iq      (  Five  years.} 


Although  the  opposing  tusks  do  not  meet,  they  undergo- 
changes  from  the  effect  of  mastication,  and  thus  become 
additional  aids  in  determining  age.  In  general  terms,  the 
young  horse  may  be  known  by  the  sharp  pointed  tusk,  and 


66  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

the  old  horse  by  the  flat  top  tusk,  which  in  the  latter  case 
is  usually  much  discolored. 

A  few  months  before  five  the  horse  sheds  the  two 
remaining  milk  teeth,  which  are  replaced  by  permanent 
ones.  The  jaw  now  has  a  full  set  of  six  permanent  in- 
cisors, but  the  corner  teeth  have  no  inner  walls.  This 
absence  of  internal  wall  distinguishes  the  five  from  the 
.six-year-old  mouth.  (Fig.  13,  Plate  V,  and  Fig.  19,  page  65.) 

A  few  months  before  six  the  inner  wall  of  the  corner 
teeth  has  grown  up  level  with  the  outer  wall,  but  in  some 
cases  this  inner  wall  is  entirely  absent.  (Fig.  14,  Plate  V.) 

The  mouth  is  now  complete  in  incisors,  and  no  further 
structural  changes  take  place  in  them.  As  a  general  rule 
the  upper  temporary  teeth  fall  out  a  little  before  those 
in  the  lower  jaw.  Up  to  six  years,  owing  to  structural 
changes,  there  can  seldom  be  any  doubt  as  to  the  age  of 
the  animal. 

High  feeding  encourages  the  growth  of  the  teeth  in 
•common  with  the  rest  of  the  frame,  and  may  give  a  colt 
a  very  forward  appearance  for  his  age. 

The  Mark. — The  mark  is  a  very  peculiar  hollow  extend- 
ing when  the  teeth  first  come  up,  about  half  an  inch  down 
in  the  temporary,  and  rather  deeper  down  in  the  permanent 
incisors. 

When  an  incisor  first  comes  up  the  hollow  affords  lodge- 
ment for  the  debris  of  the  food  and  the  juices  expressed 
from  it,  and  therefore  soon  looks  black.  As  the  tooth 
wears  down  the  hollow  of  course  disappears.  The  dentine 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  6/ 

immediately  below  the  original  hollow  being  of  a  some- 
what soft  material,  has  become  stained  for  some  distance 
down;  thus  there  is  still  a  black  mark.  With  the  further 
wear  of  the  tooth  the  stained  portion  wears  away,  and  the 
mark  disappears.  The  time  required  for  the  mark  to  wear 
out  varies  according  to  circumstances. 

Between  three  and  five  years  the  marks  are  very  plain 
in  all  the  permanent  incisors. 

At  six  the  marks,  or  cups  as  sometimes  called,  are  wear- 
ing out  of  the  two  center  teeth,  which  come  up  at  three 
years.  They  are  plain  in  the  two  adjacent,  and  fresh  in 
the  two  corner  teeth.  (Fig.  14,  Plate  V.) 

At  seven  the  marks  have  disappeared  from  the  center 
teeth,  are  wearing  out  of  the  two  adjacent,  and  are  distinct 
and  plain  only  in  the  corner  teeth.  (Fig.  15,  Plate  V.) 

At  eight  the  marks  have  disappeared  from  all  but 
the  corner  teeth,  in  which  they  are  becoming  indistinct. 
(Fig.  1 6,  Plate  V.) 

At  nine  the  marks  are  not  usually  to  be  seen  in  any  of 
the  teeth  (  Fig.  17,  Plate  V),  but  for  about  two  years  after 
the  mark  has  disappeared  in  each  tooth  there  may  still  be 
seen  a  trace  of  the  enamel  which  lined  the  bottom  of  the 
original  hollow,  and  which  underlies  it  for  some  depth. 
This  of  course  decreases  in  size  with  the  wear  of  the  teeth. 

At  about  twelve  or  thirteen  the  last  traces  of  the  enamel 
have  usually  disappeared.  The  lower  incisors  all  show  a 
rounded  section,  and  the  dental  star  is  quite  central,  and 
very  apparent  throughout.  (Fig.  18,  Plate  V.) 


68  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

From  the  age  of  fourteen  years  (Fig.  19,  Plate  V)  to 
that  of  seventeen  years  (Fig.  20,  Plate  V),  the  teeth  assume 
a  triangular  form;  the  center  ones,  or  pincers,  at  fourteen; 
the  middle  at  fifteen,  and  the  corners  at  from  sixteen  to 
seventeen. 

At  about  eighteen  (Fig.  21,  Plate  .V)  the  triangles 
formed  by  the  teeth  lengthen  and  become  laterally  con- 
tracted, so  that  at  twenty  or  twenty-one  years  (Fig.  22, 
Plate  V)  the  teeth  are  biangular. 

Many  circumstances  may  cause  a  deviation  in  a  slight 
degree  from  these  rules.  The  time  required  for  the  mark 
to  wear  out  will  vary  in  different  horses  according  to  the 
hardness  or  softness  of  the  teeth,  and  the  nature  of  the 
food  on  which  the  animal  is  fed.  Horses  raised  on  the 
fresh,  green  pastures  of  well  cultivated  farms  retain  their 
marks  longer  than  range  horses  of  the  West  which  graze 
upon  the  dry  and  tough,  but  nutritious  native  grasses  of 
the  arid  region. 

Sometimes  there  are  causes  affecting  the  marks  in 
particular  cases  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  most 
common  of  these  are  cribbing  and  " parrot  mouth."  In 
the  first  case  the  teeth  are  worn  off  rapidly  by  the  constant 
gnawing  of  the  animal,  and  in  the  second  no  wear  of  the 
incisors  takes  place  because  the  upper  teeth  project  over 
and  in  front  of  the  lower. 

The  upper  incisors  are  larger  and  longer  than  the 
lower,  and  the  hollow  is.  nearly  twice  as  deep.  The  marks 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


69 


or  cups  therefore  remain  visible  a  much  longer  time  than 
in  the  lower  teeth. 

At  seven  years  (Fig.  20)  the  lower  corner  incisors, 
being  narrower  than  the  upper,  commence  to  wear  the 
surface  of  the  upper  incisors  into  a  well  defined  angle, 
which  becomes  more  marked  at  eight,  and  at  nine  appears 

as  a  deep  notch.  This 
notch  is  sometimes  absent, 
but  rarely  so  unless  the  cor- 
ners have  been  rasped  off 
with  intent  to  deceive. 
This  notch  is  particularly 
useful  to  those  unable  to 
decide  upon  the  appearance 
of  the  tables  or  top  surfaces 
of  the  lower  incisors. 

At  eight  years  the  den- 
tal star  appears  in  the  form 
of  a  yellowish,  transverse 
line,  most  marked  in  the 
two  center  incisors,  and  in- 
distinct in  the  others.  From  this  time  on  the  dental  star 
must  be  considered,  for  after  the  ninth  year  the  determi- 
nation of  age  by  the  teeth  becomes  very  difficult.  After 
the  twelfth  year  the  age  can  be  only  approximately  deter- 
mined. After  the  sixteenth  year  all  is  confusion,  for 
there  are  no  positive  means  of  ascertaining  the  age  from 
the  appearance  of  the  teeth  with  even  approximate  ac- 


Fig.  20.     (  Seven  years.*) 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


curacy.  It  is  safe  then  only  by  careful  examination  of  the 
shape  of  the  teeth,  condition  of  the  gums,  appearance  of 
the  head  and  frame,  to  announce  that  the  animal  is  old  or 
very  old  ;  to  say  about  sixteen,  eighteen,  twenty,  or  twenty- 
five,  indicates  better  judgment  and  more  accurate  knowl- 
edge than  to  look  at 
the  mouth  of  an  old 
horse  and  say  he.  is 
u  rising  seventeen  "  or 
"nineteen  past." 

The  dental  star, 
mentioned  as  long  at 
eight,  gradually 
changes  its  appear- 
ance, until  at  fifteen  it 
appears  distinct  and 
round  in  all  the  lower 
incisors,  and  is  found 
near  the  center  of  the 
tables  or  tops  of  the 
teeth. 

When  a  horse  has 
passed  twelve,  especially  if  weakened  by'hard  service  and 
poor  food,  his  tongue  begins  to  project  over  the  bars. 

In  general  the  tables  of  a  young  horse's  teeth  are  broad 
in  the  direction  of  the  jaw;  those  of  an  old  horse  are  round 
or  broad  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  jaw.  s 

The  teeth  of  a  young  horse  come  together  in  front  at  a 


Fig.  21.     (Nineteen  years.) 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  /I 

very  obtuse  angle,  or  almost  in  a  line.     (Figs.  18  and  19.) 
Those  of  an  old  horse,  on  the  contrary,  come  together  at 

1 


Fig.  22. 


such  a  small  angle  that  sometimes  the  lower  teeth  seem 
to  be  in  the  prolongation  of  the  jaws.     (Fig.  21.) 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


The  changes  of  form  in  the  top  surface  of  the  incisors 
arise  from  wear,  but  this  may  be  illustrated  in  another  way. 
Fig.  22  represents  a  series  of  cross-sections  cut  from  the 
three  right  lower  incisors  of  a  five-year-old  horse.  It  will 
be  seen  upon  examination  that  at  the  top  the  sections  are 
long  in  the  direction  of  the  jaw,  i  and  2;  oval  in  the  next 
few  sections,  3,  4  and  5;  rounded  forms  in  6,  7,  8  and  9; 
triangular  or  long  from  front  to  rear  in  10,  n,  12,  13,  14, 

1 5  and  16.  The  first  shapes 
characterize  the  young,  and 
the  last  the  very  old  horse. 
There  are  several  fraud- 
ulent ways  of  giving  a 
horse's  mouth  a  more 
youthful  appearance,  than 
nature  has  provided  for  his 
years.  These  are  generally 
confined  to  rasping  off  the 

corners  of  the  notches  in  the  upper  incisors,  and  burning 
new  cups  or  marks  in  the  lower  incisors — a  process  called 
"bishoping." 

To  detect  such  frauds  it  is  necessary  only  to  remember 
that  the  shape  of  the  teeth  in  young  and  old  horses  is  en- 
tirely different,  and  that  when  the  natural  mark  exists  it  is 
.surrounded  by  a  border  of  enamel  which  is  in  relief  above 
the  dental  table.  On  the  contrary,  when  an  artificial  hole 
is  made,  not  being  surrounded  with  hard  enamel,  the 
•edges  are  not  in  relief.  (Fig.  23.) 


Fig.  23. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  73 

The  fraudulent  operation  is  very  troublesome,  the 
chance  of  detection  is  great,  and  ordinary  horses  are  not 
sufficiently  valuable  to  justify  the  labor  or  the  risk  at- 
tendant upon  the  operation.  The  ages  of  valuable  horses 
are  matters  of  record,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  falsified. 


CHARTER    IV. 


ENDURANCE  OF  HORSES. 


Influence  of  the  Weight  of  the  Pack. —  Necessity  for  Husbanding  Strength 
at  First. —  Preliminary  Hardening  Valueless  Unless  Horses  Are  Kept 
Supplied  With  Forage. — Abuse  of  Horses. —  Marching  Gaits. —  Endur- 
ance Varies  With  Treatment,  Size  and  Shape. —  Causes  of  Losses  of 
Horses  in  War. —  Cavalry  Raids. —  Losses  of  Horses  in  Various  Cam- 
paigns.—  The  Establishment  of  the  Cavalry  Bureau,  and  What  It 
Accomplished. —  Frontier  Service. 


For  the  few  brief  charges  upon  the  field  of  battle,  into 
which  the  excitement  of  the  moment  may  carry  the  sick 
and  the  lame,  there  must  be  months  and  years  of  patient 
and  laborious  work  in  reconnaissance,  patrol,  advance  and 
rear  guard,  outpost  duty,  and  route  marches  with  horses 
loaded  down  with  heavy  and  unwieldy  packs. 

Few  men  upon  first  entering  the  service  can  realize 
how  accurate  a  balance  is  required  for  the  large  amount  of 
baggage  and  kit  placed  upon  the  horse. 

Experience  gradually  teaches  the  trooper  that  the  more 
he  packs  on  his  horse  the  greater  will  be  the  chance  of 
breaking  him  down,  but  stringent  orders  are  necessary 
with  all  recruits  on  service  to  compel  them  to  leave  in 
camp  or  quarters  all  but  the  necessary  and  authorized 
articles. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  75 

While  the  weight  of  the  pack  does  not  appear,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  to  diminish  the  rate  of  speed  upon 
the  march,  it  necessarily  augments  the  fatigue  of  the  horse, 
and  ultimately  tends  to  reduce  his  length  of  service.  When 
it  becomes  imperative  to  march  at  a  faster  gait  than  a  walk 
for  several  days,  it  is  customary  to  reduce  the  weight  of 
pack  to  its  lowest  limit,  and  to  secure  that  remaining  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  it  from  swaying  about. 

On  long  marches,  where  grain  is  hauled  in  wagons  and 
there  is  no  danger  of  being  suddenly  ordered  to  abandon 
the  train,  it  is  advisable  always  to  save  up  the  horses  by 
loading  the  bulky  portions  of  the  packs  in  the  wagons  as 
the  grain  is  fed  out. 

It  is  not,  however,  always  the  pack  and  the  legitimate 
work  of  cavalry  which  breaks  down  the  horses  and  renders 
them  unserviceable.  Many  fat  horses  are  started  on  the 
downward  road  by  being  galloped  about  in  an  excited 
manner  by  couriers,  who  form  exaggerated  ideas  of  the 
importance  of  the  messages  they  bear.  This  applies  es- 
pecially when  ordered  to  take  the  field  suddenly  after 
prolonged  garrison  service. 

All  soldiers  of  experience  know  well  the  value  of  c^re- 
fully  husbanding  the  strength  and  wind  of  horses  at  the 
start.  Many  men  have  been  compelled  to  lead  broken 
down  horses,  or  pack  their  saddles  and  equipments  into 
camp  on  foot,  because  of  uselessly  worrying  fresh  horses 
when  getting  ready  for  the  march. 


76  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

It  is  folly  to  imagine  that  horses  can  be  put  through 
any  preliminary  training  or  hardening  process  which  will 
enable  them  to  undergo  the  hardships  of  campaigning, 
unless  provided  with  sufficient  food  and  properly  cared 
for  on  the  march. 

Various  instances  are  recorded  where  the  horses,  not 
of  pickets  and  vedettes,  but  of  large  bodies  of  cavalry,  were 
kept  saddled  and  bridled  for  days  at  a  time  in  anticipation 
of  immediate  service.  This  practice  cannot  be  regarded 
as  otherwise  than  criminal  in  a  properly  instructed  com- 
mand. 

A  few  saddles  removed  at  a  time,  the  horses  allowed  to 
roll  and  then  groomed,  the  saddle  blanket  shaken  out  and 
refolded,  and  finally  a  good  brisk  hand  rubbing  of  the 
legs,  would  not  be  dangerous  to  the  command  if  vedettes 
were  properly  posted;  to  the  tired  horse  it  would  be  just 
such  a  boon  as  comes  to  the  invalid  when  his  bed  is  aired 
and  made  over  after  a  serious  illness. 

The  greater  part  of  cavalry  marching  is  done  at  a  walk. 
When  riding  in  the  enemy's  country  it  is  necessary  to  give 
time  for  the  advance  parties  to  send  scouts  out  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  allow  the  foraging  details  to  collect  supplies  and 
"bring  them  to  the  line  of  march.  When  traveling  with 
convoys  a  faster  gait  than  a  walk  would  leave  the  trains 
unguarded. 

When  circumstances  do  not  prevent,  however,  the  pres- 
ent plan  in  the  American  service  is  to  alternate  the  march 
at  a  walk  with  the  trot.  This  brings  the  command  to  the 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  77 

end  of  the  journey  in  much  less  time,  and  admits  of  the 
heavy  weight  being  removed  entirely  from  the  horse,  so 
that  he  may  rest  and  graze.  This  method  obtains  in  other 
services,  and  experiments  made  in  marching  at  various 
gaits  indicate  that  the  combination  of  walk  and  trot  is  the 
best  for  cavalry. 

The  endurance  of  horses  varies,  not  only  with  the  treat- 
ment accorded  to  them,  but  also  with  regard  to  their  size, 
shape  and  adaptability  for  service. 

The  loss  of  animals  in  all  wars  is  very  great,  and 
occasionally  the  average  is  much  increased  by  occurrences, 
of  an  unusual  nature.  The  situation  at  Chattanooga,  when 
the  Army  of  the  Cumberland  was  besieged  after  the  battle 
of  Chickamauga,  may  be  placed  under  this  category.  There 
was  absolutely  no  forage  for  the  animals;  they  ate  bark,, 
wagon  bodies,  one  another's  manes  and  tails,  and  those  not 
used  for  food  by  the  half -starved  troops  finally  succumbed 
to  starvation  at  the  picket  lines. 

The  losses  of  horses  in  service  arise  from  a  variety  of 
causes;  gun-shot  wounds,  starvation,  epidemics,  stampedes, 
over-exertion,  improper  shoeing,  rope  burns,  sore  backs, 
and  exposure  to  inclement  weather  all  have  their  influence. 

Some  of  these  causes  appear  on  the  surface  to  be  pre- 
ventable, but  when  large  numbers  of  animals  are  assembled, 
as  was  the  case  in  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  where  every 
pound  of  supplies  had  to  be  brought  by  sea  or  rail  from 
Northern  farms,  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  how  it 


78  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

happened  that  many  detachments,  even  regiments,  were 
left  unprovided  for  at  times. 

Constant  exposure  in  rain  and  mud  caused  much  dis- 
ease; at  one  time  nearly  all  the  cavalry  horses  were  laid 
up  with  scratches  and  grease  heel,  brought  on  by  unsani- 
tary surroundings. 

The  records  of  the  Civil  War  as  to  the  loss  of  animals 
are  not  available  in  a  complete  form,  but  enough  is  known 
to  establish  the  fact  that  the  expense  of  keeping  up  cav- 
alry in  the  large  volunteer  army  was  very  great,  and  arose 
from  a  multiplicity  of  causes,  which  were  and  always  will 
be  inseparable  from  raw  levies  of  mounted  men. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  war  the  demand  for  horses  to 
mount  the  newly  organized  cavalry  regiments  was  very 
great,  and  as  the  majority  of  people  supposed  that  the  war 
would  be  of  short  duration,  considerable  carelessness  pre- 
vailed in  the  selection  of  horses. 

Thousands  of  animals  utterly  unfit  to  take  part  in  the 
fatigues  and  exposure  of  campaigns  were  hurried  into  ser- 
vice, with  the  very  natural  result  that  they  soon  died  or 
became  a  burden  upon  the  government. 

The  cavalry  service  was  unsatisfactory  to  the  ambitious 
officers  who  saw  the  possibilities  open  to  that  arm  of  the 
service  if  well  drilled,  disciplined  and  mounted.  It  was 
apparent  that  the  results  obtained  were  not  commensurate 
with  the  expense  lavished  on  that  arm,  and  every  effort 
was  put  forth  to  discover  wherein  the  service  could  be 
improved  and  the  horses  made  to  last  longer. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  79 

The  records  of  the  volunteer  cavalry  during  the  Civil 
War  are  not  sufficiently  accurate  to  base  any  conclusions 
or  comparisons  as  to  the  endurance  of  trained  animals  in 
the  hands  of  regular  soldiers,  such  as  exist  in  large  num- 
bers in  European  armies.  They  do,  however,  give  an  idea 
of  just  what  may  be  expected  whenever  a  large  number  of 
volunteers  are  put  into  the  field  upon  untrained  horses  in 
America. 

General  MEIGS  commented  upon  this  subject  in  his 
report  as  Quartermaster-General  in  1 862  as  follows : 

"  Ignorance  and  carelessness  of  raw  soldiers  waste  our 
horses,  but  it  is  believed  that  the  quality  of  the  animals 
supplied  is  quite  as  good  as  in  any  other  army. 

"After  every  battle  and  every  considerable  march  great 
numbers  of  horses  are  turned  into  the  depots  as  disabled, 
and  urgent  requisitions  are  made  upon  the  department  for 
remounts,  as  essential  to  the  efficiency  of  the  troops.  Of 
the  disabled  horses  many  die;  many  prove  on  inspection 
to  be  incapable  of  recovering  in  such  time  as  to  be  worth 
the  expense  of  keeping  them;  these  are  sold.  Those  which 
by  good  feeding  and  careful  attention  can  be  recruited  are 
kept  in  the  depots,  and  issued  for  use  in  the  army  when 
again  fit  for  the  service. 

"The  reports  and  returns  received  from  the  new  and  in- 
experienced officers,  ivho,  from  necessity,  have  been  employed  in 
tins  department,  are  too  irregular  and  imperfect  to  give,  at 
this  time,  a  perfectly  accurate  statement  of  the  number  of 
horses  and  mules  purchased  and  issued  to  the  army  during 
the  fiscal  year.  The  consumption  of  horses  has  been  very 
great." 

When  it  is  considered  that  each  cavalryman  in  the  Con- 
federate army  was  compelled  to  supply  himself  with  a 


80  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

horse,  without  recourse  to  the  government,  the  number 
supplied  to  the  Federal  army  surpasses  all  belief. 

There  were  purchased  during  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1864,  188,718  horses;  captured  from  the  enemy 
ana  reported,  20,308.  Leaving  out  of  consideration  those 
captured  and  not  reported,  it  is  observed  that  the  army 
required  500  horses  each  day  for  remounts;  and  this  is  the 
measure  of  destruction  of  horses  during  the  same  period. 

Notwithstanding  his  opinion,  that  "as  the  cavalry  has 
improved  in  discipline  and  knowledge,  it  is  believed  the 
horses  last  longer,"  the  Quartermaster-General  again  called 
attention  to  the  great  loss  of  horses  in  the  following 
language : 

"During  the  first  eight  months  of  the  year  1864  the 
cavalry  of  the  Army  of  the  Potomac  was  supplied  with  two 
remounts,  nearly  40,000  horses. 

"The  supply  of  fresh  horses  to  the  army  of  General 
SHERIDAN  during  his  late  campaign  in  the  valley  of  the 
Shenandoah  has  been  at  the  rate  of  150  per  day." 

Such  data  as  can  be  obtained  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  much  of  the  loss  of  horses  in  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac  during  the  first  two  years  of  the  war  was  brought 
about  by  mistaken  ideas  as  to  the  proper  use  of  cavalry. 
The  amount  of  picket  duty  performed  by  mounted  men 
was  out  of  all  proportion  to  their  numbers  or  to  the  neces- 
sities of  the  service. 

Worn  out  troopers,  lounging  in  muddy  and  frozen 
saddle  kits,  on  half-starved  horses,  characterized  the  out- 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  8 1 

post  duty  of  the  army  during  the  winter  of  1862  and  1863.* 

Cavalry  raids  were  inaugurated  by  the  Confederates  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  the  war  into  the  territory  of  the 
enemy,  thus  cutting  lines  of  supply  and  forcing  unde- 
sirable concentrations  of  troops.  These  raiders  lived  off 
the  country,  and  returned  to  their  lines  laden  with  booty,, 
and  accompanied  by  a  plentiful  supply  of  fresh  horses 
gathered  from  the  enemy. 

As  the  Federal  cavalry  became  trained  to  its  work, 
raiding  columns  were  sent  into  various  parts  of  the  South; 
many  of  them,  particularly  those  penetrating  to  the  rear 
of  LEE'S  army,  found  it  was  very  different  from  Confed- 
erate raids,  for  there  was  nothing  left  in  the  country,  and 
it  was  more  like  starving  than  living  off  the  enemy. 

These  raids  tested  the  powers  of  endurance  of  the 
horses  to  the  utmost  limit,  and  were  responsible  for  an 
immense  loss  of  animals. 

Raiding  became  accepted  as  a  thing  of  recognized  value 
in  the  art  of  war,  and  the  full  accomplishment  of  mighty 
ends  was  regarded  as  value  received  for  the  thousands  of 
dead  horses  that  marked  the  routes  of  march. 

Although  the  weight  of  packs  carried  on  these  raids 
was  always  fixed  as  low  as  possible  under  the  extraordinary 
circumstances  surrounding  them,  the  horses  were  weighted 


*The  sixth  regiment  of  regular  cavalry  was  encamped  near  Falmouth, 
Va.,  for  four  months  performing  outpost  duty,  and  when  ordered  to  march 
on  the  resumption  of  the  campaign,  April  13,  1863,  it  was  necessary  to  leave 
300  men  in  the  dismounted  camp,  notwithstanding  strenuous  exertions  had 
been  made  to  keep  the  regiment  mounted.  It  is  probable  that  like  propor- 
tions obtained  in  other  regiments  in  that  army. 


82  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

beyond  their  capacity,  ridden  beyond  their  powers  of 
endurance,  fed  mostly  on  green  corn  fodder  or  ''rough- 
ness," and  used  up  generally  in  the  accomplishment  of  the 
great  ends  for  which  the  columns  were  set  in  motion."" 

The  loss  of  horses  alarmed  the  government  for  fear  it 
would  be  impracticable  to  keep  up  a  numerous  and  well 
equipped  cavalry,  and  the  organization  of  new  cavalry 
regiments  was  discouraged.  It  required  the  utmost  efforts 
of  the  Cavalry  Bureau  to  remount  the  regiments  already 
enlisted  in  the  early  days  of  the  war. 

In  this  connection  it  appears  proper  to  cite  a  few 
instances  from  the  experience  of  other  nations,  in  order  to 
show  that  the  loss  of  horses  during  the  Civil  War  wras  not 
the  result  of  wanton  waste,  but  was  what  should  have  been 
expected  in  accordance  with  the  teachings  of  history. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  loss  of  horses  arises  from  a 
variety  of  causes,  those  killed  in  battle  being  but  a  small 
percentage  of  the  whole.  Forced  marches,  periods  of 
great  privation,  and  epidemics,  occur  at  intervals  to  raise 
the  ordinary  average,  and  these  causes  must  always  be 
counted  upon  as  exercising  a  marked  effect  in  every  cam- 
paign, no  matter  where  the  theater  of  operations  may  be. 


*Although  WILSON'S  expedition  to  Selma,  Ala.,  with  a  body  of  13,000 
horsemen,  was  through  much  of  the  South  which  was  depended  upon  to 
furnish  supplies  to  the  Confederate  armies,  each  trooper  was  ordered  to 
carry,  in  addition  to  his  ordinary  kit,  five  days'  rations,  twenty -four  pounds 
of  grain,  100  rounds  of  ammunition,  and  two  extra  horseshoes.  This  enabled 
them  to  pass  across  a  strip  of  country  which  had  been  devastated  by  both 
armies.  The  raid  was  entirely  successful,  and  culminated  in  the  capture  of 
•ex-President  JEFF  DAVIS. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  83 

THE    RUSSIAN    CAMPAIGN.       l8l2. 

During  the  Russian  campaign  the  French  crossed  the 
Niemen  in  June,  1812,  with  cavalry,  artillery  and  train 
horses  to  the  extent  of  187,121  ;  about  60,000  of  these  per- 
tained to  the  cavalry. 

Up  to  this  time  it  had  been  very  hot,  but  an  unprece- 
dented rainfall  commenced;  in  a  few  days  the  weather 
turned  cold,  the  roads  became  almost  impassable,  and  there 
was  little  or  no  food  for  the  horses.  Ten  thousand  horses 
were  left  dead  between  the  Niemen  and  Wilna. 

At  this  time  the  only  food  to  be  had  for  the  large 
number  of  animals  with  the  army  consisted  of  young, 
growing  crops  of  wheat,  rye  and  barley.  Such  food  is  cal- 
culated to  produce  weakness,  and  intestinal  troubles  of  a 
grave  nature,  and  this  was  without  doubt  the  cause  of  most 
of  the  loss. 

MURAT  states  that  half  the  cavalry  perished  around 
Moscow  in  their  search  for  supplies.  It  was  not  the  horrors 
of  the  icy  retreat  which  used  up  the  animals,  for  NAPOLEON 
caused  BERTHIER  to  write  to  VICTOR  on  November  6th 
that  the  cavalry  was  unhorsed;  in  all  92,000  horses  had 
succumbed  before  the  first  fall  of  snow. 

On  December  1 3th  the  remnant  of  the  invading  army 
re-crossed  the  Niemen  with  i  ,600  cavalry.  In  six  months 
the  horses  had  all  disappeared,  and  there  is  ample  evi- 
dence that  this  was  not  the  result  of  cold,  but  of  starva- 
tion, aggravated,  perhaps,  by  cold  towards  the  end  of  the 
campaign. 


84  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

RETREAT    ON    CORUNNA — PENINSULA    WAR. 

This  retreat  was  carried  out  in  rain,  ice  and  snow,  over 
mountain  roads.  The  food  supply  was  not  abundant,  but 
the  chief  cause  of  loss  was  want  of  horseshoes  and  nails. 
There  was  plenty  of  iron,  but  no  time  to  perform  the  work 
of  making  shoes  by  hand. 

After  all  the  perils  and  suffering  of  the  retreat,  those 
horses  which  survived  and  reached  Corunna  were  put  to 
death  on  the  beach  to  prevent  them  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  enemy,  there  being  no  room  for  them  on  the 
transports.  About  2,300  horses  constituted  the  loss. 

WELLINGTON'S  RETREAT  FROM  SALAMANCA. 
When  WELLINGTON  retreated  from  Salamanca  to 
Ciudad  Rodrigo,  a  distance  of  240  miles,  the  horses  were 
verging  on  starvation,  having  no  other  food  than  the  bark 
of  trees  and  wild  brier.  Incessant  rain,  stony  and  heavy 
ground,  together  with  the  want  of  food,  caused  the  loss  of 
280  horses,  or  more  than  one  for  every  mile  of  road. 

MASSENA'S  RETREAT  FROM  PORTUGAL. 
MASSENA  retreated  from   Portugal  with   8,000  horses. 
During  the  ten  days  occupied  by  the  retreat  the  total  loss 
was   1,955,  or   195  each   day,  being  over  twenty-two  per 
cent,  of  the  wrhole  number. 

AFGHAN    CAMPAIGN.       1838-39. 

There  was  not  a  large  number  of  cavalry  horses  em- 
ployed in  the  first  Afghan  War,  but  the  loss  was  nearly 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  85 

sixty  per  cent.  The  loss  of  pack  animals  from  starvation 
was  very  heavy,  and  has  caused  the  Bolan  Pass  to  be  well 
remembered  in  the  British  service.  The  animals  were 
worn  out  by  a  long  march  and  bad  water,  and  being  en- 
tirely dependent  upon  grazing  for  food,  the  loss  amounted 
to  20,000  animals  before  reaching  Candahar,  and  more  than 
30,000  for  the  campaign. 

In  the  second  Afghan  War  ( 1878)  the  loss  of  pack  ani- 
mals during  a  period  of  six  months  was  9,496  out  of  a  total 
of  13,840  on  the  returns. 

CRIMEA.       1855. 

All  sorts  of  excuses  have  been  made  for  the  losses  in 
this  campaign,  but  the  melancholy  fact  remains  that  the 
horses  were  starved  to  death.  During  a  period  of  six 
months  the  loss  of  transport  horses  was  thirty-eight  per 
cent.,  and  out  of  5,048  cavalry  and  artillery  horses  there 
remained  at  the  opening  of  spring  2,258. 

ITALIAN    CAMPAIGN.       1859. 

During  the  campaign  in  Italy  the  Emperor,  NAPOLEON 
III,  ordered  a  cavalry  commission  to  investigate  the  cir- 
cumstances which  had  reduced  the  cavalry  to  a  comparative 
state  of  inefficiency.  It  transpired  that  on  May  20,  1859, 
the  French  cavalry  had  9,008  effective  horses,  which  number 
was  subsequently  increased  by  the  arrival  of  a  brigade ;  so 
that  on  the  24th  of  June,  the  date  of  the  battle  of  Solferino, 
the  total  number  of  horses  borne  on  the  returns  was  10,206. 


86  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

On  the  day  of  the  battle  it  was  found  that  only  about  3,500 
horses  were  in  the  ranks  fit  for  duty. 

The  remainder  had -been  disabled  by  less  than  a  month's 
marching,  and  an  immense  proportion  of  these  had  been 
rendered  unserviceable  by  the  saddle  and  other  portions  of 
the  equipment. 

BOHEMIA.       1866. 

During  the  brief  campaign  of  a  few  weeks  in  Bohemia 
in  1866  the  Prussian  cavalry  suffered  a  loss  of  4,226  horses, 
that  being  about  seventeen  per  cent,  of  the  whole  number 
in  the  campaign. 

FRANCO-GERMAN    WAR.       1870. 

The  official  returns  of  the  German  army  only  show  the 
loss  of  horses  in  action;  that  is,  killed,  wounded  and 
missing.  No  returns  are  given  of  those  which  died  from 
diseases,  but  as  the  army  received  a  supply  of  38,000  horses 
during  the  campaign,  besides  the  animals  captured  or  im- 
pressed by  detachments  to  replace  broken-down  horses, 
and  not  reported,  the  loss  from  disease  may  be  assumed  at 
not  far  from  30,000.  The  number  killed,  wounded,  etc., 
was  reported  at  14,595. 

EGYPTIAN    CAMPAIGN.       1885. 

The  total  strength  of  horses  for  all  branches  of  the  ser- 
vice landed  in  Egypt  was  5,000,  of  which  one-eighth  died 
or  were  destroyed.  The  loss  in  the  cavalry  was  one-fifth. 
The  number  of  sore  backs  treated  during  this  campaign 
was  very  large,  being  more  than  500. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  8/ 

No  nation  has  within  the  present  century  had  anything 
like  the  experience  of  Americans  with  mounted  men  in  a 
protracted  war.  In  order  to  show  the  magnitude  of  cavalry 
operations  it  is  only  necessary  to  present  a  brief  sketch  of 
the  Cavalry  Bureau  and  of  one  of  its  remount  depots. 

In  these  brief  references  to  the  experience  of  other 
nations,  enough  has  been  shown  to  emphasize  the  fact  that 
heavy  losses  of  horses  must  be  expected  in  service,  and  are 
absolutely  inseparable  from  active  and  successful  campaign- 
ing. This  is  said  advisedly,  for  it  would  be  courting 
disaster  to  teach  any  such  doctrine  as  that  the  saving  of 
horses  from  injury  and  death  is  of  such  importance  as  to 
permit  it  for  a  moment  to  hazard  the  full  success  of  any 
campaign. 

The  whole  object  of  this  book  is  to  place  a  few  facts 
about  horses  in  such  a  light  as  will  cause  young  officers  to 
give  the  matter  their  best  thoughts,  with  a  view  to  their 
future  service  to  the  government.  If,  therefore,  by  giving 
the  subject  attention  in  all  its  details,  they  are  enabled  to 
understand  why  one  cavalry  commander,  by  impressing 
his  knowledge  upon  a  large  body  of  horsemen,  is  enabled 
to  accomplish  great  results  at  small  cost  to  the  country, 
while  another  can  only  accomplish  the  same  results  by 
breaking  down  all  his  horses,  a  great  end  will  have  been 
accomplished. 

That  patriotism  alone  cannot  immediately  bring  forth 
good  cavalrymen  there  is  ample  evidence  in  the  many 
fruitless  efforts  of  the  first  two  years  of  the  war. 


88  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

The  unsatisfactory  results  and  continued  complaints 
about  the  class  of  remounts,  finally  caused  the  subject 
to  receive  careful  attention,  but  not  until  an  enormous 
amount  had  been  invested  in  unsuitable  animals. 

It  took  two  years  of  a  great  war  tc  bring  about  the 
establishment  of  the  Cavalry  Bureau;  the  result  of  this 
action  was  so  beneficial  to  the  troops  in  the  field,  as  a 
whole,  that  it  appears  proper  for  future  reference  to  insert 
here  a  brief  sketch  of  some  of  the  operations  under  this 
bureau. 

It  may  here  be  noted  that  it  was  found  advisable  when 
regiments  had  been  subjected  to  very  hard  service  and 
severe  losses  to  send  them  to  the  nearest  depot  to  be  re- 
mounted and  equipped,  transferring  to  other  regiments  in 
the  field  such  serviceable  horses  as  were  fit  for  immediate 
use. 

The  Cavalry  Bureau  was  charged  with  the  organization 
.and  equipment  of  the  cavalry  forces  of  the  army,  and  with 
the  duty  of  providing  for  the  mounts  and  remounts. 

The  purchase  of  all  horses  for  the  cavalry  service  was 
directed  to  be  made  by  officers  of  the  Quartermaster's  De- 
partment, under  the  direction  of  the  Cavalry  Bureau,  and 
the  inspection  of  all  horses  for  the  cavalry  service  was 
required  to  be  made  by  cavalry  officers. 

Depots  were  ordered  to  be  established  for  the  reception, 
organization  and  discipline  of  cavalry  recruits,  and  for  the 
collection,  care  and  training  of  cavalry  horses;  the  depots 
to  be  under  the  general  charge  of  the  Cavalry  Bureau. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES,  89 

The  principal  depots  for  public  animals  established  by 
authority  of  this  order  were  located  at  Giesboro,  D.  C.; 
St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Greenville,  La.;  Nashville,  Tenn.;  Harris- 
burg,  Pa.,  and  Wilmington,  Del.;  all  of  which  contributed 
much  to  the  efficiency  of  the  service,  especially  in  the 
matter  of  affording  facilities  for  the  recuperation  of  broken 
down  animals. 

A  general  order  was  promulgated  on  July  28,  1863, 
containing  instructions  intended  to  promote  the  efficiency 
of  the  cavalry  service,  and  Major-General  GEORGE  STONE- 
MAN  was  announced  as  Chief  of  the  Cavalry  Bureau  in 
Washington. 

On  January  2,  1864,  Brigadier-General  KENNER  GAR- 
RARD  was  assigned  to  the  charge  of  the  bureau,  and  also 
instructed  to  assume  the  direct  command  of  the  cavalry 
depot  at  Giesboro,  D.  C.,  but  he  was  relieved  on  the  26th 
of  the  same  month  by  Brigadier- General  J.  H.  WILSON, 
who  continued  in  charge  until  April,  on  the  i4th  of  which 
month  the  following  instnictions  were  promulgated  from 
the  War  Department: 

"I.  That  the  Cavalry  Bureau  shall  be  under  command 
of  the  Chief  of  Army  Staff,  who  shall  perform  the  duties 
of  Chief  of  the  Cavalry  Bureau  prescribed  by  existing 
orders,  and  the  officers  of  that  bureau,  respectively,  will 
report  to  him. 

"  II.  All  the  duties  relating  to  the  organization,  equip- 
ment and  inspection  of  cavalry  will  be  performed  by  a 
cavalry  officer  specially  assigned  to  that  duty. 

"III.  The  duties  in  relation  to  purchase  and  inspection 
of  horses,  the  subsistence  and  transportation  of  horses  pur- 


QO  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

chased,  will  be  performed  by  and  under  the  direction  of 
an  officer  of  the  Quartermaster's  Department  specially 
assigned  to  that  duty." 

The  principal  depot  for  horses  was  located  on  the  farm 
known  as  Giesboro  Manor,  situated  on  the  northern  bank 
of  the  Potomac,  nearly  equi-distant  between  Washington 
and  Alexandria.  This  site,  consisting  of  about  625  acres, 
was  selected  by  General  STONEMAN  after  an  examination 
of  various  places  in  the  vicinity. 

The  government  took  possession  of  the  estate  on  August 
12,  1863,  and  paid  to  the  owner  a  monthly  rental  at  the 
rate  of  $6,000.00  per  annum  from  that  date  until  August 
31,1 866.  Immediately  after  taking  possession  the  erection 
of  stables  and  other  buildings  was  commenced  under  the 
general  supervision  of  Lieutenant-Colonel  C.  G.  SAWTELLE, 
Chief  Quartermaster  of  the  Cavalry  Bureau,  and  Colonel 
CHARLES  R.  LOWELL,  Sixth  U.  S.  Cavalry,  was  assigned  to 
duty  as  commanding  officer  of  the  depot. 

Within  three  months  after  the  commencement  of  opera- 
tions provision  was  made  for  1 5 ,000  animals,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  next  three  months  arrangements  had  been  com- 
pleted for  the  proper  care  of  30,000  animals,  although 
2 1 ,000  was  the  largest  number  ever  on  hand  at  any  one 
time. 

Stables,  corrals,  stock  yards,  forage  houses,  storehouses, 
shops,  mess  houses,  quarters,  a  grist  mill,  chapel  and  three 
wharves  were  constructed.  The  wharves  afforded  facilities 
for  loading  three  steamers  of  the  largest  class  at  the  same 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  9! 

time.     The  hospital  stables  had  accommodations  for  2,650 
horses. 

All  of  the  stables  and  buildings  were  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  water,  and  also  with  fire  apparatus.  A  steam 
fire-engine  was  kept  in  constant  readiness  for  use,  and  its 
services  were  required  only  once  during  the  existence  of 
the  depot,  when  principally  through  its  agency  a  large 
amount  of  forage  was  saved. 

Many  of  the  horses  were  kept  in  open  sheds  and  yards,, 
but  there  were  thirty-two  stables,  capable  of  accommodating 
more  than  6,000  horses,  besides  the  hospital  and  smaller 
stables. 

The  stock  yards  covered  about  forty-five  acres.  Each 
yard  was  provided  with  troughs  and  hay  racks,  and  the 
horses  had  free  access  to  the  river. 

A  steam  feed  mill,  with  a  capacity  to  grind  and  mix 
grain  for  13,000  full  rations  each  day,  was  erected  at  a  cost 
of  $26,500.00. 

During  the  progress  of  construction  about  5,000  men 
were  employed,  but  this  number  was  reduced  after  the 
buildings  were  completed,  and  was  never  after  above 
1,500. 

The  estimated  cost  of  the  Giesboro  depot  was  $1,225,000. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  magnitude  of  the  operations 
carried  on  under  the  Cavalry  Bureau,  the  following  report 
from  the  Giesboro  depot  is  of  interest: 


92                             HORSES,    SADDLES    AND  BRIDLES. 

On  hand  October  i,  1863,  cavalry  horses,  4,281 

Received  to  December  31,  1863,  36,932 

Total,                              -  41,213 


Issued,  22,204 

Sold,  1,651 

Died,  1,637 

Total,  -            -            -            -            -            -            -           25,492 


On  hand  January  i,  1864,      -  15,721 

Received  by  purchase,  January  i,  1864  to  June  30,  1866,  5,326 

Received  from  other  depots  for  issue,  59,507 

Received  for  recuperation,  85,980 

Received  by  transfer  from  artillery,  4,120 

Total,  ,                170,654 


Issued  to  armies  in  the  field,  96,006 

Issued  to  officers  after  June  30,  1865,  1,574 

Issued  for  sale  or  sold  at  depot  48,721 

Died,  24,321 

Total,                -                        -  -                                               170,632 


On  hand  June  30,  1866,  32 

This  does  not  take  into  consideration  the  twelve  or 
thirteen  thousand  artillery  horses  handled  at  this  depot. 

This  report  closes  with  the  abandonment  of  the  depot, 
"but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  nearly  all  the  volunteer 
cavalry  was  mustered  out  immediately  after  the  surrender 
of  General  LEE'S  army  the  preceding  year,  so  that  nearly 
all  the  horses  were  handled  during  a  period  of  eighteen 
months. 

When  it  is  understood  that  there  were  six  large  horse 
depots,  and  this  one  handled  horses  principally  for  the 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  93 

Army  of  the  Potomac,  which  contained  but  about  one- 
tenth  of  the  cavalry  in  service,  the  magnitude  of  the  labor 
imposed  on  the  bureau  charged  with  the  remount  duties 
may  be  comprehended. 

That  this  work  was  well  done  during  the  last  two  years 
of  the  war  must  be  conceded  by  all  who  have  any  knowl- 
edge of  the  deeds  accomplished  by  the  cavalry  corps  of  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac.  The  herculean  tasks  performed 
by  this  body  of  horsemen  under  SHERIDAN  have  not  been 
approached  by  any  cavalry  in  Europe  since,  and  while 
Americans  are  justly  proud  of  the  results,  the  officers  who 
for  several  years  had  been  improving  the  system  of  re- 
mounts, and  those  who  had  been  building  up  the  troops, 
regiments  and  brigades  into  well  disciplined  and  trained 
bodies  of  horsemen,  should  not  be  forgotten,  for  it  was  the 
harmonious  whole,  resulting  from  their  long  continued 
efforts,  which  made  SHERIDAN'S  career  in  Virginia  a  pos- 
sibility. 

For  many  years  the  cavalry  traveled  incessantly  to  and 
fro  over  the  plains,  mountains  and  deserts  of  the  great 
Western  frontier,  with  varying  degrees  of  fortune. 

Much  of  this  occurred  prior  to  the  settlement  of  the 
country,  and  hence  many  of  the  long  and  arduous  marches 
were  accomplished  with  difficulty,  often  accompanied  with 
actual  suffering  and  disaster. 

As  early  as  the  Mexican  War,  a  cavalry  column  marched 
from  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  to  San  Diego,  Cal.,  a  dis- 
tance of  more  than  2,000  miles,  passing  through  a  hostile 


94  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

country,  and  fighting  several  severe  actions,  before  arriv- 
ing at  its  destination. 

The  nature  of  the  service  in  the  past  has  been  such  as 
to  frequently  demand  the  sacrifice  of  large  numbers  of 
horses.  It  often  happened,  however,  that  pursuit  of  hostile 
Indians  had  to  be  abandoned  while  many  horses  were 
capable  of  going  on,  because  troopers  whose  horses  had 
failed  in  strength  could  not  be  abandoned  on  the  trail,  and 
subjected  to  the  risk  of  capture  by  merciless  savages. 

Scattered  through  the  records  are  many  reports  of 
losses  from  stampedes,  caused  by  storms  or  savages.  This 
was  a  favorite  mode  of  warfare  with  Indians,  and  was  a 
most  effective  means  of  crippling  an  enemy  far  from  the 
base  of  supplies. 

Glanders  has  at  various  times  caused  the  destruction  of 
the  horses  of  entire  troops. 

Upon  one  occasion,  while  proceeding  by  sea  from  New 
York  to  Galveston,  after  the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  a 
cavalry  regiment  was  compelled  to  lighten  ship,  during  a 
violent  storm  off  Cape  Hatteras,  by  throwing  overboard 
many  of  the  horses. 

During  the  Sioux  campaign  of  1876  a  brigade  under 
General  CROOK  lost  about  600  horses,  a  great  many  being 
killed  for  food,  upon  which  the  entire  command  subsisted 
for  some  days. 

During  the  same  campaign  the  Seventh  Cavalry,  oper- 
ating with  another  command,  lost  more  than  300  horses 
killed  in  action  and  from  other  causes. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  95 

During  the  autumn  of  1879,  while  in  action  against  the 
Utes,  all  the  animals  of  Major  THORNBURG'S  command 
were  killed,  as  well  as  those  of  a  troop  which  made  a  forced 
march  of  eighty  miles  to  aid  beleaguered  comrades. 

Instances  of  endurance,  forced  marches,  and  losses  by 
field  and  flood  might  be  indefinitely  multiplied  from  records 
of  service  upon  the  frontier,  but  the  few  cited  are  sufficient 
to  illustrate  the  varied  character  of  service,  and  the  severity 
of  its  demands  upon  both  men  and  horses. 


CHAPTER    V. 


i 

FRAMEWORK  OF  THE  HORSE  MECHANICALLY  CONSIDERED. 


Center  of  Motion. —  Center  of  Gravity. —  Base  of  Support. —  Relative  Posi- 
tions of  Centers  of  Motion  and  Gravity. — Equilibrium. — Effect  of  Head 
and  Neck  on  Center  of  Gravity. — Artificial  Balance  of  Saddle  Horse. 


The  skeleton  forms  the  basis  of  the  animal  machine, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  understanding  of  it  from 
a  mechanical,  as  well  as  anatomical  point  of  view.  The 
principles  involved  are  familiar,  relating  chiefly  to  levers 
and  equilibrium,  or  such  a  distribution  of  weight,  with 
reference  to  its  supports,  as  to  insure  stability.  The  prin- 
cipal weight  to  be  carried  is  the  rider  and  packed  saddle. 

Looking  at  the  spine,  or  framework  of  the  back  on 
which  the  rider's  weight  is  to  be  carried,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  under  line  of  the  vertebrae  is  nearly  straight, 
although  not  horizontal,  since  it  inclines  somewhat  down- 
wards towards  the  forehand.  The  spinous  processes  of  the 
first  thirteen  vertebras,  reckoning  from  the  point  where 
the  neck  is  attached,  incline  backwards;  the  fourteenth, 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  are  nearly  upright,  and  the  remain- 
ing dorsal  and  all  the  lumbar  vertebrae  incline  forward. 

Regarding  the  entire  backbone  as  an  arch,  it  is  evident 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  97 

that  the  keystone  is  at  the  point  where  the  vertebrae  stand 
upright,  that  is,  about  the  fifteenth,  or  between  the  four- 
teenth and  sixteenth.  It  is  obvious  that  this  inclination 
of  the  processes  towards  a  central  point  is  intended  to  and 
does  limit  the  motion  of  the  back  downward  and  upward, 
so  that  the  center  of  motion  of  the  horse's  body,  the  point 
at}out  which  the  several  movements  of  the  fore  and  hind 
legs  are  performed  with  varying  degrees  of  rapidity,  lies 
near  the  fifteenth  vertebra.* 

This  is  further  shown  by  the  distribution  and  points  of 
attachment  of  the  muscles  of  the  back  and  adjacent  parts 


*  Considerable  discussion  having  arisen  from  time  to  time  as  to  the 
fourteenth  vertebra  being  the  most  upright,  the  author  addressed  a  commu- 
nication in  regard  to  this  point  to  one  of  the  recognized  veterinary  authori- 
ties in  America.  The  careful  consideration  given  the  subject  justifies  the 
publication  of  the  reply: 

AMERICAN  VETERINARY  COLLEGE,  May  23,  1894. 
Captain   W.  H.  Carter: 

DEAR  SIR: — To  answer  your  letter  of  the  i8th  inst.  I  have  made  re- 
searches which  I  send  you,  but  which  I  am  afraid  will  not  permit  a  definite 
solution  of  the  problem. 

The  veterinary  anatomies  that  I  have  consulted  do  not  seem  to  agree 
as  placing  the  fourteenth  dorsal  vertebra  in  the  light  presented  by  Major 
DWYER'S  book.  For  instance,  STRANGEWAY  says  that  the  thirteenth,  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  are  nearly  upright,  and  the  sixteenth  oblique  forwrard. 
For  STEEL,  it  is  the  sixteenth.  "For  RIGOT,  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  are 
about  upright.  CHAUVEAU  and  FLEMING  say  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
are  about  upright,  the  eighteenth  bent  forward.  Others,  like  PERCIVAL  and 
ELAINE,  make  no  mention  of  the  difference. 

Amongst  the  cuts  that  I  have  (Cuyer  and  Alix,  Leisering)  the  fifteenth 
seems  the  most  upright. 

Out  of  three  skeletons  that  are  in  the  museum  of  the  college  (French 
and  American),  two  natural  and  one  artificial,  the  fifteenth  is  the  most  up- 
right of  all. 

Evidently  from  these,  taking  an  average,  it  appears  that  the  upright 
conditions  of  the  superior  spinous  process  is  more  generally  admitted  as 
existing  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  than  in  the  fourteenth. 

***** 

I  remain  yours  very  respectfully, 

A.  LIAUTARD. 


98  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

of  the  fore  and  hind  quarters.  Putting,  therefore,  the 
progressive  movement  of  the  animal  out  of  the  question, 
as  being  equally  applicable  to  all  its  parts,  the  motion  of 
the  several  parts  of  the  body  increases  in  proportion  to 
their  distance  from  the  center  of  motion. 

The  same  rule  is  applicable  to  burdens  placed  on  the 
horse's  back,  especially  that  of  a  rider,  whose  frame  is  also 
subject  to*  its  own  peculiar  motions,  some  of  which  are 
caused  by  the  progressive  movement  of  the  animal. 

If  the  rider  be  placed  over  the  center  of  motion,  a  point 
equally  removed  from  the  four  points  of  support,  he  will 
occupy,  as  it  were,  the  summit  or  apex  of  a  more  or  less 
regular  pyramid,  and  should  have  greater  stability,  and  be 
less  disturbed  by  the  horse's  motion,  than  if  placed  at  any 
other  point. 

The  determination  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  living 
bodies  whose  parts  are  of  various  density  and  subject  to 
constant  displacement  by  locomotion,  change  of  attitude, 
and  by  action  of  the  organs  themselves,  is  a  very  difficult 
matter  when  compared  to  its  determination  in  bodies  of 
geometrical  form  and  homogeneous  construction.  The 
practical  value  of  its  determination  in  the  horse  lies  in  the 
knowledge  thereby  acquired  as  to  the  proper  distribution 
of  load  in  order  to  retain  the  normal  position  of  the  center 
of  gravity,  and  thus  prevent  one  set  of  limbs  being  used 
up  before  the  others. 

The  position  of  the  center  of  gravity  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  weight  of  the  body  on  the  legs  vary  with  the 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  99 

conformation  of  the  animal,  particularly  as  to  the  size 
and  shape  of  the  head  and  neck.  In  consequence  of  the 
projecting  position  of  these  parts,  a  somewhat  greater 
proportion  of  its  total  weight  falls  on  the  fore  legs  than  on 
the  hind  ones,  and  causes  the  forehand  to  average  about 
one-ninth  heavier  than  the  hind.* 

A  great  many  experiments  have  been  made  to  deter- 
mine the  exact  position  of  the  center  of  gravity  of  the 
horse,  and  the  best  authorities  agree  that  it  lies  at  or  near 
the  intersection  of  a  vertical  line  (AB,  Plate  I)  passing 
just  behind  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  sternum,  or 
breast  bone,  and  a  horizontal  line  (EF)  cutting  the  lower 
third  of  the  body  from  the  upper  portion.  This  inter- 
section will  generally  lie  in  the  median  plane  of  the  body.f 

The  usual  method  of  determining  the  center  of  gravity 
is  to  use  two  weighing  machines,  so  placed  that  the  an- 
terior extremities  rest  upon  the  middle  of  one,  and  the 
posterior  extremities  upon  the  middle  of  the  other.  By 
this  same  method  the  effect  upon  the  center  of  gravity  is 
found  as  the  horse  raises  or  lowers  his  head;  when  the 
saddle  and  load  are  shifted  forward  or  back;  also,  when 
the  rider  throws  his  weight  into  the  stirrups,  or  leans  for- 
ward, back,  or  to  either  side. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  center  of  motion  is  situated 
in  a  perpendicular  line  cutting  the  vertebrae  at  or  near  the 
fifteenth  (CD,  Plate  I),  and  the  center  of  gravity  on  a  line 


*  General  MORRIS'S  "Essai  Sur  1'Extorieur  du  Cheval." 
f"The  Exterior  of  the  Horse,"  by  GOUBAUX  and  BARRIER. 


100  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

cutting  the  vertebrae  nearer  the  shoulder  (AB,  Plate  I). 
A  horse  in  a  natural  state  goes  with  the  two  centers  in  the 
relative  positions  described,  and  can  do  so  with  a  rider; 
the  horse  can  also  go,  when  either  trained  or  weighted,  so 
that  the  center  of  gravity  falls  to  the  rear  of  the  center  of 
motion,  as  in  certain  styles  of  school  riding. 

For  all  general  purposes,  however,  the  perpendiculars 
falling  through  these  two  centers  should  be  made  to 
coincide;  for  correct  military  riding  this  condition  is  par- 
ticularly desirable,  owing  to  the  necessity  for  turning  sharp 
curves  at  all  rates  of  speed  while  heavily  weighted. 

The  polygon,  formed  by  lines  joining  the  four  points 
touched  by  the  horse's  feet  standing  at  rest,  is  called  the 
base  of  support.  In  motion  this  base  of  support  becomes 
sometimes  a  triangle,  at  others  a  line,  and  finally,  as  in  the 
run,  a  mere  point. 

The  equilibrium  is  of  course  more  stable  as  the  base  of 
support  becomes  larger,  and  the  line  of  gravitation  nearer 
the  center  of  the  base,  and  unstable  under  the  contrary 
conditions.  A  broad  or  " square  built"  horse  will  have  a 
condition  of  stable  equilibrium  greater  than  a  narrow- 
chested  horse,  whose  legs  are  close  to  the  median  plane. 
Both  being  at  rest,  the  rectangle  forming  the  base  of  sup- 
port in  the  latter  case  will  fall  within  the  rectangle  of  the 
former,  the  length  being  the  same. 

While  at  rest  all  the  legs  are  regarded  as  bearers,  but 
when  in  motion  the  fore  legs  are  the  bearers,  and  the  hind 
legs  act  essentially  as  propellers.  To  a  certain  extent, 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  IOI 

however,  the  fore  legs  assist  propulsion,  as  the  hind  legs 
also  assist  in  sustaining  the  weight. 

Many  of  the  conditions  governing  a  horse's  attitude  in 
a  state  of  rest  continue  to  be  equally  imperative  after  action 
has  commenced,  and  some  even  more  so.  It  is  more  dan- 
gerous to  the  horse  to  lose  his  balance  when  in  motion, 
especially  at  high  rates  of  speed,  than  when  standing  still. 

It  is  an  established  fact  that  race  horses  are  favored 
in  their  stride  by  putting  the  jockey  well  forward,  and  the 
converse,  of  this  is  true ;  that  is,  by  weighting  back  there  is 
a  loss  of  propelling  power,  owing  to  the  hind  legs  also 
becoming  bearers.  While  speed  is  gained  for  short  dis- 
tances by  adjusting  the  load  forward,  it  will  not  do  for 
service  because  of  the  rapid  breaking  down  which  occurs 
in  the  fore  legs. 

A  mounted  horse  is  said  to  be  in  equilibrium  when  he 
is  capable  of  obeying  the  hands  and  legs  of  the  rider  with- 
out unnecessary  effort,  and  with  perfect  freedom  of  the 
muscular  groups  whose  action  is  necessary  to  produce  the 
desired  movements. 

What  has  been  shown  to  be  true  by  actual  experiments 
with  live  horses  on  proportion  scales,  may  be  illustrated  in 
another  way  by  a  simple  diagram. 

Suppose  the  head  and  neck  of  the  horse  to  occupy  the 
position  DA  in  Fig.  24;  the  relative  weight  would  then  be 
represented  by  the  distance  from  Nto  I  on  the  line  DE, 
or  IN.  If  the  head  and  neck  be  lifted  to  the  position  DB, 
the  relative  weight  will  be  represented  by  IN' ,  and  if  still 


102 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


more  elevated,  to  D  C  by  IN".  The  relative  overhanging 
weight  of  the  head  and  neck  is  diminished  in  proportion 
as  their  position  is  brought  nearer  to  that  represented  by 
D  C,  and  the  further  effect  of  this  is  to  throw  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  animal  to  the  rear  of  its  former  position; 
that  is,  if  the  center  of  gravity  is  at  F  when  the  head  and 
neck  occupy  the  position  DA,  it  will  be  moved  to  G  when 

the  head  and  neck  are  raised  to  the  line  DB,  and  further 
c 


F  GH 


"N'N'N 


Fig.   24. 

back  to  H  when  the  head  and  neck  are  raised  to  the  posi- 
tion D  C. 

A  horse's  neck  is  flexible  to  a  certain  extent,  and  the 
head  which  forms  no  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  over- 
hanging weight,  can  be  bent  at  various  angles  to  the  neck. 
It  is  therefore  practicable  to  diminish  the  preponderance 
of  these  members  by  altering  their  relative  position  as 
described  above,  and  to  diminish  the  distance  at  which  the 
perpendicular  falls  outside  the  base  line  DE,  by  bending 
the  neck,  and  also  by  causing  the  head  to  assume  an  acute 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  103 

angle   with  the   neck,  whether  the  latter  be   straight  or 
curved. 

The  application  of  this  knowledge  renders  it  possible, 
in  connection  with  proper  bitting  and  saddling,  to  train 
cavalry  horses  to  maintain  their  equilibrium  at  all  gaits 
while  carrying  on  their  backs  about  one-fourth  or  more 
of  their  own  weight. 

In  the  foregoing  the  movement  of  the  center  of  gravity 
has  been  considered  only  in  a  vertical  direction.  It  also 
has  a  marked  horizontal  motion,  its  oscillations  to  the  right 
and  left  at  a  walk  and  trot  being  quite  regular,  and  con- 
stantly traveling  in  the  direction  of  the  fore  foot  which  is 
about  to  support  the  weight. 

In  riding  on  curves,  as  in  the  riding  school  or  circus, 
the  horse  and  rider  both  lean  towards  the  inside  to  bring 
the  center  of  gravity  in  that  direction,  otherwise  the  animal 
would  lose  his  balance  and  fall. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  the  horse  not  only  leans  toward  the 
inner  side  of  the  curve,  but  also  turns  his  head  in  the  same 
direction. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  center  of  gravity  lies  some- 
what nearer  the  shoulders  than  the  center  of  motion.  It 
is  a  very  natural  question,  therefore,  as  to  whether  the  load 
should  be  adjusted  so  as  to  leave  the  center  of  gravity 
where  nature  placed  it,  or  to  move  it  further  back. 

That  the  horse  instinctively  changes  the  location  of  this 
center  himself  is  shown  in  the  way  a  loose  horse  travels. 
Horses  on  the  range  moving  along  at  a  walk  almost  invari- 


104  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

ably  hang  their  heads  down  slightly,  and  on  a  march  they 
do  the  same  thing.  When  they  strike  into  a  trot  every 
head  will  go  up  at  once.  If  anything  causes  the  herd  to 
break  into  a  gallop,  so  long  as  they  remain  at  a  hand  gallop 
their  heads  may  continue  as  at  a  trot,  but  as  soon  as  the 
stride  becomes  lengthened  into  a  fast  gallop  or  run,  the 
heads  will  be  straightened  out  and  lowered  again.  Either 
straightening  out  or  lowering  the  head  brings  forward  the 
center  of  gravity. 

If  there  were  no  other  conditions  to  be  met  than  those 
involving  progress  in  a  forward  direction,  no  reason  would 
•exist  for  any  alteration  of  the  horse's  natural  balance;  but 
there  are  many  things  which  have  to  be  taken  into  consid- 
eration which  influence  the  fixing  of  an  artificial  balance 
of  the  saddle  animal,  particularly  the  cavalry  horse. 

It  is  necessary  to  establish  the  horse  in  such  equilib- 
rium that  he  may  execute  all  the  movements  of  drill  with 
promptness  and  accuracy,  and  with  a  minimum  of  fatigue 
to  himself  and  rider.  This  involves  quick  turns  without 
•decreasing  the  gait,  which  latter  the  horse  in  nature  nearly 
always  does. 

To  use  a  saber  on  horseback  it  is  necessary  to  have  the 
horse  balanced  more  with  a  view  to  quick  turns  on  the 
hind  rather  than  the  forehand. 

One  reason  exists  for  throwing  the  balance  of  the  horse 
somewhat  to  the  rear,  which  alone  makes  it  expedient  to 
do  so.  This  is  the  necessity  for  preventing  the  front  feet 
and  legs  from  becoming  prematurely  ruined.  It  is  not  a 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  IO5 

matter  of  theory  merely,  but  a  well  known  result  of  actual 
experience,  that  horses  carrying  weights  upon  their  backs 
become  broken  down  in  front,  as  a  rule,  long  before  they 
suffer  any  deterioration  of  the  hind  legs. 

The  date  of  breaking  down  is  much  hastened  by 
saddling  far  forward  over  the  withers,  and  by  an  improper 
use  of  the  stirrups,  which  will  be  explained  later. 


CHAPTER    VI. 


GAITS  OF  THE  HORSE. 


Motion  Implies  Displacement  of  Center  of  Gravity.  —  Natural  Gaits. — 
Stride  and  Step.— The  Walk.— The  Trot.— The  Hand  Gallop.— The 
Gallop;  True,  False,  Disconnected.  —  Fatigue  Somewhat  Dependent 
on  Motion  of  Center  of  Gravity. — The  Jump. 


The  movement  of  the  horse's  body  over  the  ground 
implies  displacement  of  the  center  of  gravity,  which  com- 
pels the  legs  to  form  new  bases  of  support.  The  more 
unstable  the  equilibrium  at  any  gait,  the  greater  the  speed 
for  that  particular  gait.  This  arises  from  the  simple  fact 
that  the  more  insecure  the  equilibrium  is  the  quicker  will 
the  new  base  of  support  have  to  be  formed. 

The  speed  with  which  the  body  moves  forward  is  in 
proportion  to  the  speed  with  which  the  limbs  are  straight- 
ened out.  Any  excess  of  muscle  beyond  that  required  for 
the  due  working  of  the  limbs  is  an  impediment  rather 
than  an  aid  to  speedA 

There  are  four  natural  gaits,  the  walk,  amble,  trot  and 
gallop;  and  several  artificial  gaits,  being  more  or  less 
variations  of  the  natural  gaits.  Amongst  these  may  be 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  IO/ 

mentioned  the  running  walk,  a  cross  between  the  walk 
and  trot;  the  single  foot,  distinguished  by  the  posterior 
limbs  moving  in  the  order  of  the  fast  walk  and  the 
anterior  ones  in  that  of  a  trot,  being  an  irregular  gait, 
the  characteristic  rhythm  of  the  footfall  of  which,  once 
learned,  will  be  easily  recognized,  even  in  the  dark;  and, 
finally,  the  common  canter,  in  which  the  horse  is  said  to 
gallop  in  front  and  trot  behind. 

Marches,  drills  and  maneuvers  are  performed  at  varying 
degrees  of  speed,  but  the  only  authorized  and  desirable 
gaits  are  the  walk,  trot  and  gallop.  Especially  should 
officers'  horses  be  trained  to  perform  these  gaits  at  the 
regulation  rate  of  speed  per  mile.  Nothing  else  is  so 
trying  to  the  temper  of,  or  so  productive  of  discomfort  to 
the  men  in  ranks,  as  an  officer  leading  the  column  on  a 
horse  with  a  running  walk  instead  of  a  square  walk,  or  a 
single  foot  instead  of  a  trot. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  in  the  analysis  of  the  gaits  it 
will  be  found  that  no  two  animals  will  show  the  same  im- 
prints at  any  particular  gait,  and  the  same  horse  even  will 
be  found  to  vary  greatly  in  a  few  strides. 

By  stride  is  understood  the  distance  from  the  print  of 
one  foot  to  the  print  of  the  same  foot  when  it  next  comes 
to  the  ground,  in  contradistinction  to  step  which  relates  to 
the  forward  or  backward  movement  of  one  limb  only. 

These  modifications  depend  entirely  upon  the  conditions 
in  which  the  animal  is  placed,  for  the  horse  instinctively 
alters  the  position  of  his  supports  to  accommodate  his 


io8 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

PLATE    VI. 


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C         D         £         A.'        C'      A*       C"      X" 

equilibrium,  which  may  be  slightly  but  continually  varied 
by  his  rider.     This  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  line  of 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  109 

-footprints  made  at  a  gallop.  In  this  case  the  horse  is  sup- 
ported by  one  limb  at  a  time,  and  it  is  essential  that  the 
variations  of  the  center  of  gravity  from  side  to  side  should 
be  promptly  met  by  corresponding  variations  of  the  points 
of  supports,  as  well  as  the  variations  in  a  forward  direction. 

In  Plate  VI  the  dark  shoes  represent  the  prints  of  the 
hind  feet.  A,  B  and  C  represent  the  trails  made  by  three 
good  cavalry  horses  taken  from  the  troop  stable,  and  walked 
over  a  prepared  track.  D  and  E  are  trails  drawn  on  the 
same  scale,  to  illustrate  the  superposed  imprints,  and  the 
case  of  a  horse  which  steps  short  with  his  hind  feet. 

A  and  C  are  the  trails  made  at  a  trot  by  the  horses 
used  for  A  and  C. 

A'  and  C"  are  the  trails  made  at  a  gallop  by  the  same 
horses,  and  A"  is  the  trail  made  at  a  fast  gallop  or  run  by 
the  same  horse  used  for  A,  A  and  A". 

When  the  horse  started  over  C"  the  track  was  wet  near 
the  end,  which  caused  him  to  take  short  steps. 

The  Walk. —  This  gait  is  above  all  others  the  cavalry 
gait,  since  the  heavy  weight  of  trooper  and  pack  necessi- 
tates its  use  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  all  the  other  gaits 
combined.  Unfortunately  it  is  not  practicable  to  determine 
the  ability  of  the  horse  as  a  walker  by  his  conformation. 
The  walk  of  most  horses  is  improved  by  service  in  the 
ranks. 

A  good  walk  is  characterized  by  a  high  rather  than  low 
carriage  of  the  head.  The  fore  legs  should  be  carried 
forward  freely  and  directly,  without  undue  elevation  of  the 


I  10  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

knees.  The  hind  legs  should  act  in  planes  parallel  to  those 
in  which  the  fore  legs  move.  The  hoofs  should  be  planted 
squarely,  and  remain  in  place  without  rotating  inward  or 
outward.  The  prints  of  the  hind  feet  should  appear  on 
the  ground  in  front  of  those  of  the  fore  feet,  and  the  inter- 
vals between  them  on  one  side  should  be  the  same  as  on 
the  other.  External  influences  operate  in  this  connection, 
however,  for  the  prints  of  the  hind  feet  will  sometimes  be 
found  superposed  upon  those  of  the  front,  and  at  other 
times  to  fall  behind  them.  (A,  B,  C,  D  and  E,  Plate  VI.) 

The  walk  is  a  gait  o/  four  flat  beats,  each  foot  being 
planted  in  regular  order.  If  the  right  fore  foot  first  comes 
to  the  ground,  the  left  hind  foot  is  next  planted;  then  the 
left  fore  foot,  and  finally  the  right  hind'  foot.  During  this 
movement  the  weight  is  borne  first  by  the  two  fore  feet 
and  the  right  hind  foot;  then  by  the  right  fore  foot  and 
the  right  hind  foot;  then  by  the  two  hind  feet  and  the 
right  fore  foot;  and  lastly  by  the  left  fore  foot  and  the 
right  hind  foot. 

The  theory  of  the  horse's  walk  is  that  there  should  be 
two  feet  upon  the  ground  while  the  diagonal  ones  are  being 
advanced,  and  if  the  legs  moved  synchronously  in  pairs, 
there  would  be  four  feet  on  the  ground  for  a  brief  time  at 
each  step.  It  is  more  difficult  to  maintain  equilibrium  in 
a  slow  movement  than  a  fast,  and  in  the  walk  the  diagonal 
limbs  do  not  act  synchronously,  because  it  is  necessary  for 
one  of  the  reserve  feet  to  hold  to  the  ground  until  the  other 
has  the  start,  in  order  to  shorten  or  eliminate  the  instant 


H  y  A*  *  » 

S    AND    BRIDLES.  ] 


HORSES,    SADDLES 

of  time  in  which  the  center  of  gravity  would  have  but  two 
points  of  support. 

The  center  of  gravity  always  falls  near  the  intersection 
of  the  lines  connecting  the  diagonal  feet,  but  within  the 

I 

triangle  connecting  the  three  feet  furnishing  support. 

If  the  horse  be  collected  between  the  hand  and  heels  of 
its  rider,  the  movement  that  results  is  the  safest  of  all  for 
rough  or  slippery  ground.  The  horse  has  never  less  than 
two,  and  never  more  than  three  feet,  bearing  the  weight 
at  the  same  time,  and  when  he  quickens  his  movement  he 
does  not  at  once  change  his  gait,  but  extends  his  strides, 
and  makes  them  more  uniform  until  further  extension 
becomes  difficult,  when  he  will  break  into  a  trot. 

The  Trot. —  In  the  trot  the  footfalls  mark  two  sharp 
beats,  and  the  horse  springs  from  one  pair  of  diagonally 
disposed  legs  to  the  other  pair,  and  is  entirely  free  from 
the  ground  between  each  step,  except  in  the  short  trot. 
If  the  trot  depends  simply  upon  this  united  action  of  a  fore 
leg  and  its  diagonal  hind  leg,  the  pace  may  be  very  slow, 
but  if  the  speed  be  such  that  the  stride  is  too  long  for  the 
fore  feet  to  remain  upon  the  ground  together,  the  true  trot 
results,  and  the  horse  goes  into  the  air  from  each  pair  of 
diagonal  bearers  alternately.  The  jog  trot  is  a  hybrid 
gait,  and  is  not  performed  this  way. 

The  theory  of  the  trot  is  the  same  as  the  walk,  but 
adapted  to  a  higher  rate  of  speed.  It  differs  from  a  walk, 
in  that  the  horse  has  always  two  feet  upon  the  ground  at  a 


112  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

walk,  while  at  the  trot  there  is  always  a  space  of  time  in 
which  all  the  feet  are  off  the  ground. 

The  weight  is  borne  by  the  diagonally  disposed  limbs 
alternately,  and  the  step  being  supposed  to  be  a  constant 
quantity  in  the  fast  trot,  the  stride  can  'be  extended  only 
by  increasing  the  space  which  the  body  passes  over  with 
its  center  of  gravity  unsupported.  In  the  ordinary  trot 
this  distance  is  small,  but  in  the  fast  trot  it  exceeds  that  in 
which  the  body  is  supported. 

In  the  ordinary  trot  the  imprints  of  the  hind  feet  are 
superposed  upon  those  of  the  front  feet,  but  many  horses, 
especially  young  and  untrained  ones,  bring  their  hind  feet 
more  or  less  ahead  of  the  prints  of  the  fore  feet.  This  is 
easily  seen  by  hoof -marks  on  moist  ground.  (A'  and  C', 
Plate  VI.) 

There  are  other  horses  that  instead  of  overstepping, 
come  short  of  the  track  of  the  fore  feet  with  the  hind  ones. 

Those  that  overstep  will  usually  be  found  to  be  such  as 
are  overweighted  on  the  forehand,  whilst  those  that  step 
short  are  usually  such  as  are  overweighted  behind  or  that 
have  some  weakness  or  other  defect  in  their  hind  quarters. 

While  the  trot  is  not  designed  by  nature  to  be  the 
fastest  gait,  it  is  the  one  in  which  the  average  horse  is 
capable  of  traveling  farther  in  a  day's  journey,  with  less 
fatigue,  than  any  other.  It  is  now  adopted  as  the  m'aneu- 
vering  gait  for  cavalry,  and  has  grown  much  in  favor  as  a 
marching  gait,  for  the  reason  that,  when  not  too  heavily 
weighted,  the  horse  completes  the  march  in  a  shorter  time, 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  1  1 3.: 

is  then  entirely  relieved  of  his  load,  and  given  more  time 
for  rest  and  feeding. 

A  moderate  trot  is  less  fatiguing  to  horses  than  any 
other  gait  on  account  of  the  diagonal  pairs  of  legs  being 
used  as  bearers  and  propellers  alternately.  Some  horses 
will,  however,  when  ridden,  break  into  a  canter,  because 
the  alternate  shifting  of  their  own  and  rider's  weight  from 
right  to  left  becomes  more  fatiguing  than  the  constant  use 
of  each  pair  of  legs  for  the  same  purpose. 

Horses  overweighted  on  the  forehand  and  hurried  in  a 
trot,  being  unable  to  support  the  weight  thrown  more  and 
more  rapidly  on  their  fore  legs,  break  into  a  canter  or 
gallop. 

Hand  Gallop. ^The  difference  between  the  slow  gallop 
and  the  fast  gallop,  or  running  gait,  is  sufficient  to  cause 
them  to  be  mentioned  separately.  The  hand  gallop  is  a 
gait  in  which  if  the  weight  is  received  upon  the  left  hind 
foot,  it  next  falls  upon  the  right  hind  and  left  fore,  and 
then  upon  the  right  fore  foot.  It  is  a  gait  of  three  beats, 
inasmuch  as  the  second  period  of  contact  is  marked  by 
the  diagonally  opposite  hind  and  fore  feet  coming  down 
together. 

The  trail  made  by  the  horse  at  this  gait  is  entirely 
different  from  that  at  the  fast  gallop,  but  in  passing  from 
one  to  the  other  the  rider  does  not  perceive  any  disunited 
or  violent  action  akin  to  that  which  takes  place  in  passing 
from  a  trot  to  a  gallop,  and  the  reverse.  The  horse  simply 
extends  himself,  gradually  if  not  urged,  and  passes  imper- 


114  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

ceptibly  to  the  gait  in  which  a  diagonal  pair  of  feet  no 
longer  come  down  together,  and  which  will  be  described 
as  the  gallop.  The  horse  leads  with  a  fore  leg,  which  does 
not  act  with  the  diagonal  hind  leg. 

The  Gallop. — This  is  the  most  rapid  of  gaits,  and  is  taken 
when  the  propulsion  from  the  hind  quarters  becomes  so 
vigorous  as  to  shift  the  center  of  gravity,  and  prevent  the 
balance  necessary  for  the  performance  of  any  of  the  other 
gaits.  It  has  heretofore  been  the  least  understood  of  all. 

The  most  perfect  method  of  quadrupedal  locomotion  is 
that  in  which  the  greatest  speed  is  attained  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  vital  force.  This  is  found  in  the  horse  in 
which  the  deviation  of  the  line  of  motion  from  the  hori- 
zontal is  least.  Perfect  locomotion  requires  uniform  sup- 
port to  the  center  of  gravity  and  continuous  propulsion. 
The  fast  gallop  or  run  more  nearly  fulfills  these  conditions 
than  any  other  gait. 

The  drawings  ( Plate  VII),  introduced  to  show  the  action 
of  the  horse  in  performing  the  galloping  stride,  are  from 
the  MUVBRIDGE  photographs,  as  shown  in  "The  Horse  In 
Motion,"  and  may  be  relied  upon  for  accuracy  of  repre- 
sentation. 

The  center  of  gravity  is  supposed  to  be  under  the  saddle. 
Fig.  i  of  the  drawings  represents  the  rider  and  horse  ready 
to  start.  The  horse  goes  into  the  air  from  a  fore  foot 
{Figs.  2,  3  and  4);  receives  the  weight  upon  the  diagonal 
hind  foot  (Fig.  5);  then  plants  the  other  hind  foot  (Figs. 
6  and  7);  then  taking  the  weight  upon  the  latter,  extends 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

PLATE    VII. 


Il6  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

himself  and  plants  the  diagonal  fore  foot  (Fig.  8);  takes 
the  weight  upon  the  latter,  and  then  plants  the  other  fore 
foot  (Figs.  9,  10,  ii  and  12),  which  then  alone  sustains  the 
weight  until  the  center  of  gravity  passes  over  it,  when  the 
horse  again  goes  into  the  air,  to  alight  upon  the  diagonal 
hind  foot,  planted  in  front  of  the  spot  just  vacated  by  the 
last  mentioned  fore  foot. 

The  imprints  left  upon  the  ground  by  a  fast  galloping 
horse  follow  each  other  very  nearly  in  a  straight  line. 
This  indicates  a  minimum  size,  in  a  transverse  direction, 
of  the  base  of  support,  and  consequently  great  instability, 
as  well  as  speed.  (A",  C"  and  A'",  Plate  VI.) 

So  long  as  the  horse  goes  upon  a  straight  course  it 
matters  little  whether  the  gallop  is  effected  upon  one  foot 
or  the  other,  although  the  horse  often  takes  advantage  of 
a  slackening  in  his  speed  to  change  the  order  of  succession 
of  his  feet,  most  probably  to  ease  up  on  a  fatigued  member. 

It  is  quite  different,  however,  when  the  course  is  cur- 
vilinear. A  centrifugal  force  is  developed,  which  is  so 
much  stronger  as  the  velocity  of  the  gait  is  greater,  and 
the  curve  shorter.  The  horse  is  therefore  obliged  to  incline 
himself  towards  the  inner  side  of  the  trail  to  counteract 
this  force.  In  view  of  a  fall,  which  is  always  imminent, 
he  must  steady  his  equilibrium  on  that  side  by  the  foot- 
hold of  the  corresponding  propelling  member;  the  right  if 
the  course  turn  to  the  right,  the  left  if  it  turn  to  the  left. 

The  gallop  is  disunited  when  the  horse  leads  with  his 
fore  feet  in  an  inverse  manner  to  the  movement  of  his 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  I  I/ 

hind  feet;  that  is,  if  he  gallops  to  the  right  with  his  fore 
feet,  his  hind  feet  will  move  as  if  he  were  galloping  to  the 
left.  The  right  fore  foot  would  lead,  and  the  left  hind  be 
the  last  to  leave  the  ground,  whereas  in  the  united  gallop, 
if  the  right  fore  foot  leads,  the  right  hind  should  be  the 
last  to  leave  the  ground. 

The  horse  gallops  disunited  rarely,  and  with  great  diffi- 
culty. It  usually  occurs  when  the  horse  tries  to  effect  a 
change  of  lead,  and  is  suddenly  interfered  with.  It  causes 
much  discomfort  to  the  rider,  and  cannot  be  continued  by 
the  horse  for  any  length  of  time. 

The  gallop  is  called  true  when  it  is  effected  upon  the 
right  foot  when  the  horse  turns  to  the  right.  It  is  called 
false  under  contrary  conditions,  that  is,  when  the  horse 
gallops  to  the  right  on  a  curve  while  leading  with  his  left 
fore  foot. 

In  consequence  of  the  regular  alternation  of  the  mem- 
bers at  a  walk  and  trot,  the  work  performed  by  each  diag- 
onal pair  is  identical,  but  in  the  gallop  this  is  not  the  case. 
In  galloping  to  the  right,  the  right  fore  and  hind  limbs  in 
turn  support  the  body  for  a  longer  period  than  the  limbs 
of  the  other  side.  The  hind  limb  on  which  the  body  falls 
has  to  sustain  more  than  the  fore  limb,  which  supports  it 
only  before  the  phase  of  projection.  It  follows,  that  in 
order  to  distribute  the  work  equally  upon  the  horse's  limbs, 
the  rider  should  take  the  precaution  to  change  his  lead 
from  time  to  time.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  bending 
the  horse's  head  towards  the  side  with  which  he  may  be 


Il8  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

leading- ;  this  will  compel  him  to  lead  with  the  opposite 
side  or  lose  his  equilibrium.  The  horse  should  of  course 
be  pulled  up  somewhat  to  enable  him  to  make  the  change. 

The  fatigue  of  the  horse  at  any  gait  will  depend  very 
much  upon  the  movement  of  his  center  of  gravity.  If  this 
center  varies  but  little  from  a  horizontal  line  the  strength 
is  not  expended  as  rapidly  as  when  there  is  great  variationr 
for  the  same  amount  of  lifting  is  not  required.  In  the  first 
case  the  horse  goes  level,  with  great  freedom  of  action,, 
and  should  produce  little  fatigue  to  himself  or  rider.  In 
the  second  case,  the  rider  being  lifted  vertically  through 
a  considerable  distance  at  every  stride,  the  gait  is  not 
smooth;  the  connection  between  horse  and  rider  is  not 
closely  maintained,  and  the  horse  is  characterized  as 
"  rough." 

If  the  horse  be  urged  at  any  gait  to  continually  extend 
himself  beyond  his  ordinary  capacity,  it  will  be  more 
fatiguing  to  him  than  if  permitted  to  take  the  next  faster- 
gait. 

The  Jump. —  Although  leaping  is  a  mode  of  progression^ 
it  is  not  a  continuous  one,  and  cannot  be  properly  consid- 
ered a  gait.  All  quadrupeds  in  a  wild  state  acquire  a 
knowledge  of  jumping  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  but  the 
horse  of  civilization,  especially  when  carrying  a  rider,  re- 
quires considerable  training  and  good  handling  in  order  to 
enable  him  to  surmount  difficult  obstacles. 

Some  horses  can  jump  while  at  a  trot,  or  even  from  a 
standing  position,  but  the  majority  of  horses  can  perform 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 
THE    JUMP. 


Preparation. 


Passing  the  Obstacle. 


Impulsion. 


Descent  in  front. 


Descent  behind. 
Fig-  25 


n 


120  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

satisfactorily  only  at  a  gallop  sufficiently  slow  to  enable 
the  animal  to  measure  well  the  height  of  the  obstruction, 
or  length  of  the  leap  he  is  expected  to  make. 

Approaching  an  obstruction  at  a  run  (Fig.  25), 
the  horse  betrays  his  anxiety  by  shortening  his 
/  steps,  advancing  with  both  hind  feet  nearly  sim- 
ultaneously, until  sufficiently  near  to  take  off. 
He  then  brings  his  hind  feet  well  under  the 
center  of  gravity,  and  instantly  the  fore  leg  on 
the  ground  is  propelled  upward  to  raise  the  fore- 
hand, and  this  action  is  immediately  followed  by 
energetic  propulsion  of  the  hind  legs,  sufficient 
to  lift  the  weight  to  the  height  required,  not  only 
to  surmount  the  obstacle,  but  to  carry  the  long 
body  of  the  horse  entirely  over. 

The  hind  extremities  from  the  extreme  of 
tension  on  leaving  the  ground,  pass  to  the  oppo- 
site extreme  of  flexion  as  they  go  over  the  obsta- 
cle, and  both  fore  and  both  hind,  as  they  pass  are 
so  nearly  in  unison  that  they  appear  together  in 
?   *        pairs.     After  passing  the  obstacle  the  fore  legs 
,        separate,  in  order  not  to  make  contact  with  the 
ground  at  the  same  time.     One  of  the  fore  legs 
is  extended  to  check  the  force  of  the   descent, 
which,  from  the  loss  of  horizontal  motion,  has 
little  more   than   the   momentum   of  gravity  to 
>  deal  with.     This  is  the  instant  of  great  danger 

2b        to  the  pastern  joint  and  flexor  tendons;    but  be- 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  121 

fore  these  parts  are  put  to  the  extreme  test  the  other  fore 
leg  comes  to  the  relief  of  its  fellow,  and  immediately  after 
the  hind  extremities,  one  after  the  other,  are  planted 
under  the  center  of  gravity,  and  by  their  great  lifting 
force  relieve  the  front  limbs.  All  the  limbs  are  now  free 
to  act  their  various  parts  in  the  gallop  as  before  the  jump. 
The  trail  made  by  the  horse  in  leaping  the  hedge  is 
shown  in  Fig.  26. 


CHAPTER    VII 


BITS. 


Classified  as  Bar:  Snaffle  and  Curb. —  The  Mouthing:  Pelhani;  Whitman. — 
Bit  and  Bridoon. — Horse's  Mouth  Structurally  Considered:  Curb  Groove; 
Jaw  Bone;  Tongue  Channel;  Bars. — Temperament  of  Mouth:  Normal; 
Tender;  Hard;  Spoiled. — Dimensions  Considered  in  Fitting  Curb  Bits: 
Width  of  Mouth;  Width  of  Tongue  Channel;  Height  of  Bars.— The 
Curb  Bit:  Its  Action  as  a  Lever;  Proportions  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Branches;  Falling  Through;  Standing  Stiff;  Angle  at  Which  Reins 
Act  on  Bit;  Position  of  Curb  Chain;  Width  and  Length;  Form  and 
Proportions  of  Mouth-Piece;  Attachment  of  Headstalls. — American, 
British  and  European  Cavalry  Bits. 


There  is  an  endless  variety  of  bits,  many  of  which  have 
been  successfully  designed  to  meet  the  wants  of  particular 
cases,  and  subsequently  advertised  as  panaceas  for  all  forms 
of  restiveness  arising  from  bad  bitting.  Such  articles  have 
a  period  of  popularity  more  or  less  brief,  and  are  then  cast 
aside  for  some  later  innovation,  which,  probably  like  its 
predecessor,  contains  none  of  the  essential  elements  of  a 
good  bit. 

For  the  purpose  of  discussion,  bits  may  be  arranged 
under  three  general  classes: 

First.  Bar  bits,  or  bits  with  solid  mouth-pieces  without 
lever  action,  and  in  which  a  minimum  of  pressure  on  the 
bar,  and  a  maximum  on  the  tongue,  is  obtained.  This  is 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  123 

the  lightest  form  of  bit,  and  is  used  on  driving  rather  than 
saddle  horses. 

Second.  Snaffle  bits,  or  those  with  jointed  mouth-pieces, 
which  is  the  oldest,  most  generally  used,  and  satisfactory 
of  all  forms  of  bit  ever  devised. 

Third.  Curb  bits,  in  which  lever  action  is  obtained  to 
increase  the  amount  of  pressure  brought  to  bear  upon  the 
bars  of  the  horse's  mouth. 

Bar  bits  are  usually  made  with  a  straight  or  very  slightly 
curved  mouth-piece,  with  a  medium  sized  ring  at  either 
end,  and  sometimes  with  half  cheek  pieces  also.  (No.  i, 
Plate  VIII.)  They  are  sometimes  made  with  cheek  pieces 
similar  to  those  on  curb  bits  (No.  2,  Plate  VIII),  but  as  no 
curb  chains  or  straps  are  used,  the  pressure  on  the  bars  is 
not  increased,  but  rather  diminished,  since  some  of  it  is 
transferred  through  the  cheek  straps  to  the  top  of  the  head 
or  poll.  Many  of  the  driving  bits  have  the  mouth-pieces 
covered  with  rubber ;  a  chain  bit  so  covered  is  shown  with 
part  of  the  rubber  removed  in  No.  3,  Plate  VIII. 

Of  all  instruments  employed  in  the  handling,  riding  and 
driving  of  horses,  the  common  smooth  snaffle  bit  with  one 
joint  (No.  5,  Plate  VIII),  is  by  far  the  best.  For  training 
the  saddle  horse  it  should  be  of  the  simplest  form,  neither 
too  long,  too  thin,  nor  too  much  curved,  and  each  half 
should  be  tapered  down  from  the  outside  to  the  middle  in 
such  a  way  as  to  have  the  part  which  presses  on  the  bars  of 
the  mouth  about  the  size  in  diameter  of  the  mouth- piece 
of  the  curb  bit.  The  snaffle  bit  should  act  on  the  same 


124 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

PLATE  VIII. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  I  2  5 

. 

part  of  the  mouth  that  the  curb  bit  does.  The  horse  thus- 
acquires  familiarity  with,  and  an  insight  into,  the  means  by 
which  the  rider  proposes  to  direct  and  control  his  motions, 
subsequently. 

The  action  of  the  mouth-piece  is  on  the  tongue  and 
bars  both,  and  not  being  harsh  or  painful,  the  horse  soon 
acquires  a  regular  and  steady  feeling,  known  as  "taking 
the  bit."  This  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  expres- 
sion "taking  the  bit  between  his  teeth,"  which  is  frequently 
applied  to  runaway  horses  without  good  reason,  for  it  is  not 
believed  a  horse  actually  seizes  the  bit,  but  he  may,  by 
poking  out  his  nose,  bring  the  bit  back  to  rest  against  his. 
molars  and  the  callous  corners  of  his  lips,  thus  almost  en- 
tirely removing  the  pressure  from  the  bars;  or,  he  may  put 
his  lower  lip  outside  of  one  branch  of  the  curb  bit,  and  tlms 
prevent  harsh  pressure  on  the  bars. 

There  is  no  lever  action  with  a  snaffle  bit.  There  is  a 
slight  pincer  action  on  the  bars,  but  the  power  applied  to 
the  reins  is  conveyed  unaltered  in  quantity  to  the  horse's, 
mouth. 

Snaffle  bits  are  often  made  with  rings  only,  the  cheek 
pieces  being  omitted.  This  form  is  more  common  with 
driving  than  riding  bits.  They  are  sometimes  made  with 
a  double-jointed  mouth-piece  (No.  4,  Plate  VIII,  and  Nos. 
3  and  4,  Plate  X  ),  and  occasionally  with  two  mouth-pieces, 
plain  or  twisted,  the  joint  of  one  being  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  center  from  the  other  (No.  7,  Plate  VIII).  Then 
there  is  the  single-twisted  wire  snaffle  bit,  a  very  efficacious 


126  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

instrument  for  ruining  the  horse's  mouth  when  used  by 
brutal  riders  who  pull  alternately  on  the  reins  and  literally 
saw  the  bars  and  lips  (No.  6,  Plate  VIII);  and  still  another 
contrivance  called  a  bit,  but  in  reality  two  rings  connected 
by  a  chain  (No.  12,  Plate  VIII). 

Many  of  the  so-called  improvements  on  the  snaffle  bit 
are  based  entirely  on  the  assumption  that  the  only  object 
of  bits  is  to  inflict  pain,  which  is  directly  contrary  to  the 
principles  of  rational  bitting.  The  whip  and  spur  are  the 
only  recognized  and  legitimate  instruments  of  the  horse- 
man for  punishment. 

The  mouthing  bit  (No.  8,  Plate  VIII)  is  intended  for 
use  on  young  colts  during  the  first  period  of  training. 
The  mouth-piece  is  very  large  at  the  outer  ends,  with  a 
gradual  tapering  to  the  ring  joint,  to  which  are  attached 
three  small  metal  tags  suspended  on  a  thin  plate.  The 
mouth-piece  being  thick  near  the  guards,  is  not  apt  to 
wound  the  tender  bars  and  lips,  of  the  young  horse.  The 
tags  hang  upon  and  tickle  the  tongue,  and  cause  the  colt 
to  champ  the  bit,  as  it  is  called.  As  the  horse  is  inca- 
pable of  many  ideas  at  a  time,  it  tends  to  keep  his  mind 
occupied  while  he  is  undergoing  the  process  of  being  famil- 
iarized with  strange  sights  and  sounds.  This  bit  is  made 
with  full  cheek  pieces,  to  prevent  the  rings  from  being 
drawn  into  the  mouth. 

Upon  the  gentle  application  of  this  and  the  plain  snaffle 
to  the  colt's  mouth,  much  of  the  future  usefulness  of  the 
mature  horse  depends. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  I2/ 

Curb  bits  are  made  in  a  multiplicity  of  shapes,  many  of 
which  are  ingeniously  contrived  to  produce  pain  on  the 
roof  of  the  horse's  mouth,  as  well  as  on  the  bars.  These 
bits  are  known  to  the  trade  as  "port  bits,"  but  this  does 
not  properly  characterize  the  bit,  inasmuch  as  a  curb  bit 
may  in  its  lightest  form  have  no  port  or  curve  of  the  mouth- 
piece. 

The  upper  branch  of  the  cheek  piece  is  always  straight, 
but  the  lower  branches  may  be  straight,  single  or  double 
curved. 

The  details  and  principles  governing  the  construction  of 
curb  bits  will  be  discussed  later.  A  curb  bit  with  straight 
cheeks  and  a  similar  bit  with  square  top  port  and  lip  strap 
holes  are  shown  in  Nos.  9  and  10,  Plate  VIII. 

There  is  a  hybrid  bit,  called  Pelham,  used  both  for 
driving  and  riding.  The  mouth-piece  is  jointed,  either 
like  the  common  snaffle  bit  or  like  a  pair  of  compasses. 
This  bit  is  called  the  compass  canon  in  books  on  the  horse 
of  two  hundred  years  ago.  A  driving  Pelham  is  shown  in 
No.  n,  Plate  VIII. 

It  has  the  cheek  pieces  of  the  curb  bit,  and  is  used  with 
chain  or  curb  strap.  It  is  supposed  to  possess  the  virtues 
of  that  bit  without  its  severity.  As  it  is  provided  with 
guard  rings,  it  can  be  used  with  two  pairs  of  reins,  in  the 
one  case  simulating  the  snaffle  bit,  and  the  other  the  curb 
bit,  but  in  both  cases  the  action  is  inferior  to  that  of  the 
ordinary  snaffle  and  curb  bits,  used  separately  or  in  com- 


128 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


bination  as   "bit  and   bridoon."     It  is,   however,   a  very 
useful  bit  for  some  horses. 

The    curb   bit   known   as  the   Whitman   is   somewhat 
similar  to  the  Chifney  bit,  which  was  invented  in  England 

about  the  end  of  the 
last  century.  The  up- 
per branches  of  the  bit 
are  double,  one  set  car- 
rying the  curb  chain  or 
strap,  and  the  other 
being  attached  to  the 
cheek  pieces  of  the 
bridle.  A  pull  on  the 
reins  acts  to  tighten 
the  curb  directly,  with- 
out any  pressure  on 
the  top  of  the  head. 
This  is  provided  for  by 
the  free  motion  of  the 
mouth-piece  in  the  cir- 
cular opening  in  the 
lower  ends  of  the  upper 
branches  of  the  cheek 
piece.  The  use  of  this  bit  with  the  halter  bridle  seems 
the  most  simple  and  serviceable  arrangement  possible,  and 
a  great  many  have  been  used  in  the  service  from  time  to 
time.  The  reins  are  attached  to  the  bit,  and  when  the 
bit  is  unsnapped  from  the  headstall  the  latter  becomes  a 


Fig.  27. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  129- 

halter.     This  does  away  with  the  bridle  as  an  extra  equip- 
ment, and  is  in  the  line  of  simplicity.    (Plate  XVI.) 

The  snaffle  bit,  called  bridoon,  which  is  used  in  combina- 
tion with  a  curb  bit,  has  a  mouth-piece  of  smaller  diameter 
than  is  generally  the  case  when  the  snaffle  bit  is  used 
alone,  and  has  only  rings,  no  cheek  pieces,  at  the  outer 
ends.  There  are  two  cheek  straps  on  each  side  of  the 
headstall,  into  which  are  buckled  the  two  bits.  The  curb' 
is  buckled  to  the  front  straps,  and  the  bridoon  to  the  rear 
straps,  and  a  trifle  higher  than  the  curb  bit.  (Fig.  27.) 

If  the  curb  bit  was  attached  to  the  rear  straps  the 
bridoon  Avould  be  constantly  working  against  it,  instead  of 
on  the  bars  of  the  horse's  mouth. 

There  is  little  doubt  but  that  a  double-reined  bridle, 
with  bit  and  bridoon,  is  the  most  rational,  humane  and 
serviceable  arrangement  for  all  classes  of  riding  which  in- 
volve cross-country  work  and  sudden  changes  of  gaits,  but 
it  has  never  found  favor  in  the  American  army.  As  sim- 
plicity is  desired  in  all  equipments,  it  has  been  deemed 
best  to  use  only  one  pair  of  reins  attached  to  a  medium 
curb  bit,  arranged  for  average  horses. 

Before  proceeding  with  the  discussion  of  the  curb  bit, 
some  points  relative  to  the  horse's  mouth  will  be  consid- 
ered. 

Referring  to  Plate  I,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  bony 
portions  of  the  head  are  covered  unequally  by  the  soft, 
parts — muscles,  skin  and  membranes.  The  practical  im- 
portance of  this  depends  on  the  different  degrees  of  sensi- 


13°  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

bility  to  pressure  that  results  from  varieties  of  conforma- 
tion. 

The  lower  lip  is  covered  with  a  very  thick  skin,  under- 
neath which  lie  the  roots  of  the  beard,  fat  and  membrane, 
and  this  structure  is  continued  up  into  a  depression  under 
the  chin,  known  as  the  chin  groove,  or  curb  groove.  The 
portion  of  bone  immediately  beneath  the  thick,  and  not 
very  sensitive,  skin  of  the  chin  groove,  is  flat  and  rounded 
off  in  all  directions,  being  in  fact  the  point  where  the  two 
branches  of  the  jaw  begin  to  unite  together.  If  a  flat  curb 
chain,  or  strap  which  has  a  proper  width,  act  in  this  groove, 
a  considerable  amount  of  pressure  may  be  applied  without 
causing  any  pain  to  the  horse. 

Immediately  above  this  groove,  towards  the  angle  of 
the  jaw,  the  character  of  the  bone  and  that  of  the  skin 
covering  it  are  very  much  changed;  the  former  has  sharp 
edges,  and  the  latter  is  very  thin  and  sensitive,  so  that  a 
slight  pressure  of  this  thin  skin  on  the  sharp  edges  of  bone 
causes  very  considerable  pain.  These  peculiarities  must 
be  borne  in  mind  in  order  to  properly  bit  a  horse,  for  pieces 
of  the  bone  are  frequently  broken  off,  and  cause  suppura- 
tion for  long  periods.  * 


*A  fine  young  horse  has  been  under  treatment  in  my  troop  for  nearly 
two  years  for  "broken  jaw,"  caused  by  undue  severity  in  the  use  of  the 
Shoemaker  curb  bit.  At  the  present  time  the  opening  under  the  jaw  is  still 
-discharging,  although  the  surrounding  parts  have  become  permanently 
enlarged  to  such  an  extent  that  there  is  no  longer  any  curb  groove  visible. 
The  only  description  found  of  such  a  case  occurs  in  an  old  French  book, 
published  in  1691,  entitled  "Parfait  Marechal  par  De  Solleysol,  Ecuyer." 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  131 

In  examining  the  horse's  mouth,  it  is  perceived  that 
the  lower  jaw  consists  of  two  triangular  cheek  bones,  whose 
anterior  branches  form  a  groove  or  channel  in  which  the 
animal's  tongue  lies.  Towards  its  root  it  is  enclosed  be- 
tween the  two  rows  of  molar  teeth;  further  forward,  by 
those  portions  of  the  jaw  that  lie  between  the  points  where 
the  molar  teeth  cease  and  the  incisors  commence. 

These  parts  of  the  jaw  on  either  side  devoid  of  teeth, 
except  the  tusks,  are  called  the  bars,  and  are  of  interest 
chiefly  because  it  is  somewhere  upon  them  that  the  bit 
must  be  placed.  So  far  as  the  bars  are  concerned,  or  the 
bit  itself,  its  location  could  be  varied  an  inch  or  more;  this, 
however,  is  limited  on  account  of  the  position  of  the  curb 
groove,  which  governs  the  whole  arrangement. 


This  work  also  contains  a  most  complete  and  illustrated  dissertation  on  bits 
and  bitting: 

"When  the  bridle  bears  too  harshly  on  the  jaws,  either  through  the 
fault  of  the  rider's  hand  or  otherwise,  the  jaw  becomes  wounded  or  broken 
by  it.  If  the  sore  is  small  and  the  bone  not  broken,  we  should  rub  the  parts 
with  honey  eight  or  ten  times  a  day.  If  the  bone  is  broken,  and  while  pass- 
ing the  finger  over  it  we  find  a  point  that  pricks,  or  where  an  ulcer  may  be 
formed,  take  a  little  pledget  of  cotton,  saturated  with  vitriol,  and  introduce 
it  in  the  hole.  The  next  and  following  days  rub  the  sore  with  rose  or  com- 
mon honey;  the  slough  will  fall  off,  and  the  splints  of  bone  will  drop  from 
the  bone.  The  slough  having  fallen  off,  put  on  the  sore  place  frequently 
some  brandy  or  a  little  sugar.  *  *  *  If  there  is  a  hole  in  the  jaws, 
accompanied  by  a  gangrenous  matter  and  offensive  odor,  fill  it  with  crushed 
sugar  three  or  four  times  a  day.  The  hole  will  close  up  and  the  jaw  will 
heal,  but  we  must  use  a  simple  snaffle,  or  other  bit  which  will  no  longer 
hurt  the  horse,  and  lay  aside  absolutely  the  bit  which  has  hurt  him,  on  pain 
of  destroying  his  mouth  beyond  recourse.  If  the  tongue  is  hurt  the  bit 
must  be  changed,  and  one  given  him  which  will  allow  free  use  of  the  tongue. 

"The  bone  of  the  jaw  is  sometimes  strangely  broken.  It  may  be  shat- 
tered under  the  skin  of  the  jaw;  matter  forms  there  which  rots  the  bone, 
and  as  nature  seeks  to  get  rid  of  this  corrupting  matter,  it  rots  the  skin  at 
the  place  in  the  jaw,  and  causes  a  swelling  or  tumor  with  ulcerous  matter, 
in  order  to  give  an  outlet,"  etc. 


132  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

It  is  self-evident  that  horses'  mouths  are  not  all  alike; 
therefore  each  individual  horse  requires  a  bit  adapted  to 
the  particular  dimensions,  conformation  and  temperament 
in  general  of  its  mouth. 

The  bit  is  an  apparatus  of  restraint,  which  by  its  pres- 
sure, more  or  less  severe,  on  the  bars  and  chin,  causes  pain 
of  variable  intensity.  The  temperament  is  judged  by  the 
reaction  in  consequence  of  this  pain. 

The  mouth  is  normal  when  it  supports  the  bit  with 
freedom,  without  uneasiness,  pain  or  fear;  when  it  neither 
resists  nor  yields  too  easily  to  the  action  of  the  hand. 

The  mouth  is  tender,  sensitive,  or  easy,  when  it  per- 
ceives the  most  delicate  impressions  of  the  hand,  and  re- 
sponds to  them  with  promptness. 

The  mouth  is  hard  when  it  yields  only  to  energetic 
pulls  on  the  reins. 

A  spoiled  mouth  is  one  which  reacts  falsely  to  the  indi- 
cations of  the  bit,  whatever  may  be  its  sensibility  otherwise. 
Horses'  mouths  rendered  excessively  callous  by  bad  bitting 
and  indifferent  riders  usually  come  under  this  class. 

Aside  from  the  effects  produced  by  variations  of  tem- 
perament in  the  horse,  it  is  the  bars  that  must  be  examined 
for  an  explanation  of  these  varieties  of  mouth,  for  it  is  upon 
these  more  or  less  sensitive  gums  that  the  action  of  all  bits, 
fall  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

While  there  is  great  uniformity  in  the  absolute  height 
of  the  bars,  there  is  on  the  other  hand  a  very  great  diver- 
sity in  their  shape  and  texture.  Some  are  sharp,  fine,  firm 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  133 

and  sensitive;  others  are  broad,  flat-topped,  coarse  and  de- 
void of  much  feeling.  The  former  characterize  tender  and 
the  latter  hard-mouthed  horses. 

As  a  rule  well-bred  horses  have  the  first,  and  common 
horses  have  the  second  kind  of  bars,  but  it  does  not  follow 
that  the  former  all  have  tender  and  the  latter  hard  mouths, 
for -much  depends  upon  individual  sensibility.  The  first  is 
usually  found  in  combination  with  a  thin  tongue  which  just 
fills  the  channel,  thus  permitting  the  mouth-piece  to  exer- 
cise its  proper  action  on  the  bars.  The  second,  on  the 
contrary,  is  generally  found  with  a  coarse,  thick  tongue, 
which  more  than  fills  the  channel,  protruding  so  high  as 
to  take  the  pressure  off  the  bars  to  a  great  extent. 

There  are  three  dimensions  of  the  interior  of  the  horse's 
mouth,  which  must  be  ascertained  before  attempting  to  fit 
him  accurately  with  a  proper  bit,  namely: 

First.  The  transversal  width  of  the  mouth  from  out- 
side to  outside  of  the  lips,  measured  at  the  height  of  the 
chin  groove. 

Second.  The  width  of  the  channel  or  groove  in  which 
the  tongue  lies,  or  the  distance  between  the  two  bars. 

Third.  The  height  of  the  bars,  or  the  distance  between 
two  straight  edges,  one  placed  across  the  bars  under  the 
tongue,  and  the  other  parallel  to  it,  and  tangent  to  the 
curb  groove. 

The  first  measures  the  length  of  the  mouth-piece  of 
the  curb  bit,  which  must  fit  exactly.  If  too  short  the  lips 
are  subject  to  injury,  and  if  too  long  it  slips  from  side  to 


134  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

side,  and  allows  the  corners  of  the  port  to  come  against 
and  bruise  the  bars. 

The  width  of  the  mouth  is  a  very  variable  quantity, 
depending  much  upon  the  breed,  as  well  as  the  size  of  the 
horse.  It  varies  from  about  three  and  a  half  to  five  and  a 
half  inches;  the  larger  dimension  is  seldom  found  in  good 
saddle  horses  of  average  size.  The  cheek  pieces  should 
fit  snugly  without  pressing  in  the  lips,  and  the  top  rings 
should  be  bent  outward  slightly,  to  allow  for  the  double 
thickness  of  the  lower  ends  of  the  cheek  pieces  of  the 
bridle  when  buckled  into  them. 

The  second,  which  is  the  tongue  channel,  determines 
how  much  of  the  mouth-piece  must  be  allowed  for  the 
width  of  the  port  of  the  curb  bit,  the  remainder  being 
reserved  for  the  action  on  the  bars.  This  channel  has 
been  found  to  be  nearly  always  three-fourths  the  height 
of  the  bars,  or  one  and  one-third  inches,  which  gives  the 
maximum  width  of  the  port;  for  if  the  mouth-piece  have 
the  proper  width,  and  the  port  be  made  wider  than  the 
tongue  channel,  one  or  both  corners  of  the  port  would 
come  against  the  bars,  and  produce  intolerable  pain  to  no 
purpose  whatever.  The  depth  of  the  channel  should  be 
proportional  to  the  volume  of  the  tongue,  otherwise  a 
vicious  position  of  the  bit,  which  cannot  be  corrected,  may 
ensue  from  the  overlapping  portions  of  the  tongue  not 
being  properly  accommodated  in  the  channel. 

The  form  and  volume  of  the  tongue  may  be  varied 
by  the  muscular  action  which  permits  of  extension,  retrac- 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  135 

tion,  elevation,  etc.  In  a  normal  condition  it  should  lie 
in  the  channel.  It  helps  to  support  the  bit,  and  receives 
its  first  action  when  power  is  applied  to  the  reins.  It  is  a 
very  delicate  organ,  and  subject  to  lacerations  of  a  painful 
character  unless  care  is  taken  to  prevent  such  occurrences. 
The  integrity  or  entireness  of  the  tongue  should  receive 
careful  attention  in  connection  with  bitting.  It  is  no  un- 
common thing  to  find  troop  horses  with  tongue  cut  a  quar- 
ter or  half  way  across.  A  proper  bit  will  not  do  this  if 
used  in  a  legitimate  way,  but  almost  any  curb  bit  will  do  so 
if  the  horse  be  hitched  to  a  post  by  the  reins,  and  startled 
in  such  a  way  as  to  make  him  pull  back  suddenly. 

The  third,  which  is  termed  the  height  of  the  bars,  is 
the  most  important,  because  all  the  dimensions  of  the  curb 
bit  are  proportional  to  it.  The  height  of  the  bars  has  been 
found*  to  be  quite  uniform  in  all  horses,  being  about  one 
and  three-fourths  inches;  and  this  measure  has  been 
accepted  as  the  proper  length  of  the  upper  branch  of  the 
cheek  piece  of  the  curb  bit,  measured  from  the  center  of 
the  mouth-piece  rivet  to  the  point  of  the  upper  ring  at 
which  the  curb  chain  or  strap  acts  when  pressure  is  applied ; 
this  gives  a  total  length  of  the  upper  cheek  piece  of  about 
two  and  one-half  inches  for  all  but  very  large  horses. 

The  conditions  surrounding  the  cavalryman  demand 
that  he  shall  be  provided  with  a  bit,  which,  while  allowing 
him  to  guide  his  horse  in  the  lightest  possible  manner, 
will  yet  provide  him  with  ample  power  to  bring  the  animal 
to  a  halt  from  the  charge  in  the  shortest  practicable  time. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

A  properly  constructed  curb  bit  is  the  only  one  possessing* 
these  properties. 

In  the  curb  bit  the  mechanical  advantage  of  lever  action 
is  obtained.  There  are  several  kinds  of  levers,  and  it  will 
depend  on  the  manner  in  which  the  bit  and  curb  chain  are 
arranged,  whether  or  not  the  lever  action  obtained  is  favor- 
able or  the  contrary. 

In  a  lever  of  the  first  order  the  power  is  applied  at  one 
end,  the  weight  being  placed  at  the  other,  and  the  fulcrum 
between  the  two;  the  power  and  weight  move  around  the 
fulcrum  in  opposite  directions. 

In  a  lever  of  the  second  order  the  power  and  fulcrum 
.are  placed  at  the  opposite  extremities  of  the  lever,  the 
weight  being  between  the  two.  The  power  and  weight 
move  in  the  same  direction  in  rotating  around  the  fulcrum. 

Applying  these  mechanical  facts  to  the  bit,  the  cheek 
pieces  of  which  represent  the  lever,  it  is  observed  that  in 
the  first  case,  the  power  being  applied  through  the  reins 
to  the  lower  ring,  the  bars  become  the  fulcrum,  and  the 
weight  to  be  raised  is  represented  by  the  curb  chain.  As 
the  power  and  weight  move  in  opposite  directions,  it  fol- 
lows from  a  pull  on  the  reins  that  the  curb  should  move 
forward ;  in  other  words,  the  stronger  the  pull  on  the  reins 
the  more  the  horse  should  stick  out  his  nose.  This  is 
exactly  what  is  not  wanted,  but  which  often  happens. 

In  a  lever  of  the  second  order,  the  power  being  applied 
through  the  reins  to  the  lower  ring,  the  tightened  curb 
•  chain  acting  as  a  fulcrum,  the  weight  is  represented  by  the 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


137 


pressure  on  the  bars,  and  the  horse's  head  follows  in  the 
direction  of  the  rider's  hand,  and  this  is  the  action  desired. 

It  is  evident  that,  as  the  direction  in  which  the  bit  acts 
depends  altogether  on  the  relative  amount  of  painful  pres- 
sure exercised  by  the  mouth-piece 
and  curb  chain,  the  horse's  head 
will  follow  the  rider's  hand,  even 
though  the  chain  lacerate  his  chin, 
if  only  a  greater  amount  of  pain  be 
applied  to  the  bars. 

It  is  quite  possible  to  adjust  curb 
bits  so  as  to  get  sufficient  power  on 
the  bars  without  undue  pain  on  the 
chin  groove;  in  this  way  bits  of 
small  dimensions  are  made  suffi- 
ciently reliable  in  their  action  to 
insure  efficiency,  with  a  minimum 
of  discomfort  to  the  horse. 

The  important  points  to  be  de- 
termined are  the  length  of  the  cheek 
pieces,  and  the  relative  proportions 
of  the  upper  and  lower  branches. 
The  height  of  the  bars,  or  one  and  three-fourths  inches 
for  all  but  exceptionally  large  horses,  is  adopted  as  the 
measure  for  the  upper  branch  of  the  cheek  piece.  This 
measure  is  taken  from  a  line  passing  through  the  center 
of  the  straight  portions  of  the  mouth-piece  to  the  point 
of  the  upper  ring,  where  the  curb  hook  acts. 


138  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

The  lower  branch  of  the  cheek  piece  should  be  made 
exactly  twice  as  long  as  the  upper  branch;  that  is,  from  the 
same  line  as  before  to  a  line  passing  through  the  center  of 
the  lower  ring  (Fig.  28). 

If  a  curb  bit  is  put  into  a  horse's  mouth  without  attach- 
ing a  curb  chain  or  strap  to  it,  when  the  reins  are  pulled 
the  bit  turns  round,  and  its  cheek  pieces  come  to  lie  in  the 
same  line  as  the  reins.  There  is  no  lever  action  what- 
ever, because  there  is  no  prop  or  fulcrum,  and  a  snaffle 
would,  on  account  of  its  center  joint,  be  more  efficient. 
The  same  thing  will  partially  happen  with  a  very  loose 
curb  chain  or  strap.  The  bit  is  then  said  to  "fall  through." 

The  opposite  fault  to  this  is  when  the  bit  "stands  stiff," 
without  any  play,  the  slightest  pull  on  the  reins  causing 
the  horse  pain  externally,  or  just  in  the  wrong  place. 
This  stiffness  is  often  produced  by  a  tight  curb  strap,  and 
the  horse,  instead  of  following  the  rider's  hand,  pokes  out 
his  nose.  Good  bitting  lies  between  these  two  extremes, 
equally  removed  from  stiffness  and  falling  through. 

The  length  of  the  upper  branch  of  the  cheek  piece  will 
of  itself  cause  this  instrument  either  to  stand  stiff  or  fall 
through,  according  as  it  exceeds  or  falls  short  of  the  height 
of  the  bars  of  the  mouth,  as  shown  in  Fig.  29,  where  de 
represents  the  height  of  the  bars,  db  an  upper  branch  equal 
to  de,  dc  one  of  only  half  the  same  length,  and  da  one 
double  the  length.  When  a  pull  of  the  rein  acts  at  /  on 
the  lower  branch,  the  curb  will  be  drawn  closer  to  the 
chin,  and  the  mouth-piece  back  against  the  bars;  and 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


139 


supposing  the  amount  of  this  closing  up  in  all  three  in- 
stances to  be  equal,  the  bit  with  a  long  upper  branch  da, 
will  assume  the  position  a1 df1 '.  It  will  be  stiff,  and  the 
curb  acting  upwards  in  the  direction  ea1 ,  will  press  on  the 
sensitive  part  of  the  jaw.  There  will  be  no  lever  action; 

the  two  arms  of  the  lever 
being  equal,  and  the  horse 
will  bore  in  the  rider's  hand. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  bit 
with  the  short  upper  branch 
dc,  equal  half  de,  will  assume 
the  position  c*  df3 — that  is,  it 
will  fall  through.  The  curb 
chain  or  strap  will  remain  in. 
the  chin  groove,  and  act  for- 
ward in  the  direction  ec',  but 
forming  a  very  acute  angle 
with  the  branches  of  the  bit  itself,  will  have  scarcely  any 
value  as  a  fulcrum.  The  lever  action,  however,  will  be 
very  great;  in  fact,  it  will  be  too  great. 

The  intermediate  upper  branch  db,  equal  de,  will  assume 
the  position  b' a If2;  it  will  neither  be  stiff  nor  fall  through; 
the  curb  will  remain  in  the  chin  groove,  acting  obliquely 
forward  in  the  line  ebl ',  and  will  afford  a  sufficient  support; 
and  the  lower  branch  of  the  lever,  fd,  being  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  to  one  to  the  upper  one,  db,  there  will  be  suffi- 
cient lever  action. 

In  order  to  prevent  a  bit  with  a  very  short  upper  branch 


Fig. 


140  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

from  falling  through,  riders  are  driven  to  using  a  very 
tight  curb,  the  result  of  which  is  that  the  whole  action  is 
transplanted  from  the  interior  of  the  mouth  to  the  chin; 
also,  in  order  to  prevent  one  with  a  very  long  upper  branch 
standing  stiff,  they  use  a  very  loose  curb,  which  has  the 
effect  of  making  the  bit  fall  through. 

The  angle  at  which  the  reins  act  on  the  bit  is  a  matter 
of  importance.  In  the  case  of  a  lever,  the  action  is  most 
favorable  when  the  power  is  applied  at  a  right  angle.  If 
the  bit  (Fig.  28)  were  pulled  in  the  direction  of  c  it  would 
have  no  other  effect  than  to  pull  it  downwards  and  out  of 
the  horse's  mouth,  unless  prevented  by  the  headstall.  If 
the  pull  were  made  in  the  direction  $,  it  would  only  lift 
the  bit  up  till  the  angles  of  the  mouth  stopped  it.  In 
neither  case  would  there  be  the  slightest  lever  action.  It 
is  therefore  evident  that  the  direction  a,  which  is  equally 
remote  from  both,  must  be  the  most  efficient,  and  this  is 
precisely  at  a  right  angle  to  the  lever. 

Having  adopted  the  height  of  the  bars,  or  one  and 
three-fourths  inches,  as  the  length  of  the  upper  branch  of 
the  bit,  if  the  lower  branch  is  made  double  that  length,  or 
three  and  a  half  inches,  it  will  give  lever  power  ample  for 
all  purposes  of  bitting  the  average  horse.  This  gives  a 
total  length  to  the  cheek  pieces  of  five  and  one-fourth 
inches,  measured  from  the  point  where  the  curb  hook  acts 
above  to  that  where  the  lower  ring  acts  below  (Fig.  28). 

Next  to  the  dimensions  of  the  cheek  pieces  of  the  bit, 
the  most  important  to  be  considered  is  the  curb  chain,  or 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  141 

rather  the  position  of  the  bit  in  the  horse's  mouth,  taken 
in  conjunction  with  the  curb  chain.  The  curb  chain  must 
lie  in  the  curb  groove,  without  any  tendency  to  mount  up 
out  of  it  on  to  the  sharp  bones  of  the  lower  jaw;  otherwise 
it  ceases  to  be  a  painless  fulcrum,  and  renders  the  best 
constructed  bit  uncertain  in  its  action. 

The  only  way  to  attain  painlessness  of  the  curb,  on 
which  so  much  depends,  is  by  placing  the  mouth-piece  as 
nearly  on  that  part  of  the  bars  opposite  to  the  chin  groove 
as  possible.  It  is  only  in  this  position  that  the  right  angle 
triangle  is  secured,  as  shown  in  Fig.  29.  There  is  also 
another  reason,  for  that  part  of  the  bars  which  is  best 
suited  for  the  action  of  the  mouth-piece  is  found  here,  just 
above  the  tusks. 

It  may  be  well  to  mention  that  there  is  considerable 
irregularity  as  to  the  position  of  the  tusks  in  the  mouth, 
and  mares  seldom  have  any  at  all.  For  this  reason  it  is 
difficult  to  prescribe  the  position  of  the  mouth-piece  by 
any  reference  to  them,  except  that  the  bit  should  not 
touch  them. 

The  best  fitting  bit,  even  when  placed  in  the  correct 
position,  will  not  act  properly  unless  the  curb  chain  be 
made  correctly,  and  exactly  of  the  right  length.  A  double 
chain  worked  flat,  without  rough  or  sharp  edges,  is  the 
best  kind  of  curb  for  general  use,  although  leather  is  used 
exclusively  in  the  American  service.  The  curb  chains  at 
one  time  issued  were  not  properly  made,  and  were  aban- 
doned for  leather  straps.  The  latter  are  subject  to  stretch- 


142  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    I5RIDLKS. 

ing  and  contraction,  and  are  apt  to  be  stiff  and  harsh  after 
a  few  soakings  in  water,  but  they  possess  the  one  great  ad- 
vantage of  being  easily  replaced  or  repaired,  which  is  not 
the  case  with  the  chain. 

It  is  not  practicable  to  prescribe  any  fixed  dimension 
for  the  width  of  the  curb  chain  or  strap.  It  should  be 
made  to  lie  in  the  curb  groove  without  altogether  filling  it 
up.  If  very  narrow  it  will  cause  pain,  and  if  very  broad  it 
is  liable  to  mount  up  and  come  in  contact  with  the  sharp 
cheek  bones  at  every  pull  on  the  reins. 

It  is  not  practicable  to  prescribe  the  length  of  the  curb 
chain  or  strap  in  inches.  It  will  be  found  that  the  proper 
length  for  the  curb  is  about  one-fourth  more  than  the 
width  of  the  mouth,  exclusive  of  curb  hooks;  or  in  case  of 
a  strap,  the  total  length  should  be  one  and  a  half  times  the 
width  of  the  mouth-piece.  If,  then,  the  mouth-piece  have 
exactly  the  same  width  as  the  mouth,  the  curb  strap  will 
wrap  close  around  the  chin,  pressing  equally  over  a  large 
surface.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  mouth-piece  is  too  wide, 
the  chain  or  strap  will  bear  more  or  less  on  a  particular 
spot,  and  get  up  a  sore  in  the  curb  groove. 

The  curb  hooks  for  use  with  a  chain  must  be  flat,  and 
shaped  so  as  to  hold  the  chain  in  place  securely,  and  not 
cut  the  lips  of  the  horse. 

The  mouth-piece,  through  which  the  immediate  im- 
pression is  made  on  the  mouth,  is  of  equal  if  not  greater 
importance  than  any  other  part  of  the  curb  bit.  It  appeared 
advisable  before  discussing  it  to  show  that  there  are  certain 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  143 

narrow  limits  to  trie  size  of  the  upper  and  lower  branches 
of  the  cheek  pieces,  that  the  operation  of  the  curb  chain 
or  strap  should  be  confined  wholly  to  the  function  of  a 
painless  fulcrum,  and  the  entire  action  of  the  bit  concen- 
trated in  the  mouth-piece. 

The  form  and  proportions  of  the  mouth-piece  must  be 
deduced  wholly  from  the  interior  conformation  of  that 
part  of  the  mouth  on  which  it  is  intended  to  act,  and  these 
are  the  tongue  and  the  bars.  The  fleshy  tongue  is  much 
less  sensitive  to  pressure  than  the  bony  bars,  covered  only 
with  a  very  thin  membrane.  If  a  perfectly  straight  un- 
jointed  mouth- piece  of  moderate  thickness  is  used,  this 
resting  wholly  on  the  animal's  tongue,  would,  notwith- 
standing the  lever  action,  be  the  lightest  form  of  curb  bit 
that  could  be  devised. 

If  by  means  of  a  "port,"  or  upward  curve  in  the  mouth- 
piece, pressure  is  removed  from  the  tongue  and  transferred 
entirely  to  the  sensitive  bars,  with  the  same  amount  of 
lever  action  as  before,  the  severest  form  of  curb  bit  results. 

Between  these  two  extremes  there  is  a  wide  range,  and 
the  whole  art  of  bitting  consists,  so  far  as  the  mouth-piece 
is  concerned,  in  determining  how  much  of  the  pressure 
shall  fall  on  the  tongue  and  how  much  on  the  bars,  and 
this  is  regulated  in  each  particular  case  by  the  nature  of 
the  service  required,  and  the  temperament  of  the  animal. 
The  diameter  of  the  mouth-piece  may  vary  from  a  half  to 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  parts  of  the  mouth-piece  to  act 


144  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

on  the  tongue  and  bars  respectively  should  keep  their 
places.  This  requires  that  the  mouth-piece  fit  exactly  the 
width  of  the  mouth,  and  the  width  of  the  port  be  not 
greater  than  the  width  of  the  tongue  channel.  If  a  mouth- 
piece with  a  port  be  too  wide,  a  slight  pull  on  one  rein  will 
suffice  to  displace  it,  so  that  the  bar  at  that  side  gets  either 
altogether  under  the  port,  in  which  case  the  pressure  is 
thrown  on  the  tongue,  when  the  corner  of  the  port  will, 
by  being  pressed  into  it,  cause  great  pain,  and  make  the 
action  of  the  bit  very  irregular  and  unsatisfactory.  If  the 
port  is  wider  than  the  tongue  channel,  a  similar  thing 
occurs,  and  if  narrower  it  fails  to  admit  the  tongue. 

The  height  of  the  port  is  the  most  variable  dimension 
of  all,  depending  on  the  thickness  of  the  tongue  and  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  bars,  on  the  temperament  and  conformation 
of  the  animal,  as  well  as  the  use  to  which  he  is  to  be  put. 

The  most  severe  bit  it  can  ever  be  necessary  to  use  is 
one  in  which  the  height  of  the  port  is  equal  to  its  width, 
or  about  one  and  one-third  inches.  Any  higher  port  would 
strike  the  palate,  causing  more  or  less  pain,  and  induce  the 
horse  to  bore  with  his  head  away  from  the  rider's  hand. 

The  plane  of  the  port  should  coincide  with  the  plane  of 
the  cheek  pieces,  if  straight  throughout;  if  curved  below, 
then  with  the  plane  of  the  upper  branches. 

The  upper  branches  are  always  straight,  but  while  the 
lower  branches  of  the  cheek  pieces  are  straight  in  the  best 
class  of  civilian  and  many  foreign  military  bits,  they  are 
usually  curved  in  the  American  service.  The  point  where 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


145 


the  lower  ring  is  attached,  however,  is  in  a  straight  line 
with  the  center  of  the  top  ring  and  center  point  of  the 
mouth-piece  rivet. 

Some  years  ago  the  headstalls  were  attached  to  the 
upper  branches  of  curb 
bits,  in  the  American 
service,  through  a  hori- 
zontal slit,  but  such  bits 
are  now  generally  made 
with  a  ring  at  the  top, 
which  prevents  so  much 
of  the  pull  on  the  reins 
from  being  conveyed  to 
the  poll,  as  was  the  case 
with  old  style  bits. 

In  some  bridles  the 
cheek  pieces  of  the 
headstall  are  sewed  di- 
rectly to  the  bit,  but  in 
most  military  bridles, 
arranged  to  fit  many 
different  horses,  buckles 
are  used  in  order  to  ad- 
mit of  adjusting  the  bit,  and  also  to  permit  of  its  being 
removed  for  cleaning  (Fig.  30). 

The  subject  of  bits  has  received  attention  in  the  past, 
but  has  been  much  misunderstood,  and  as  a  consequence 
the  government  arsenals  have  been  periodically  filled  with 


.  jo. 


PLATE   IX. 





HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


tons  of  discarded  bits,  and  hundreds  of  horses  have  been 
condemned  really  because  indifferent  riders  could  not 
handle  fresh  young  horses  with  the  severe  instruments 
issued  as  bits. 

The  bits  in  use  in  the  American  army  during  the  past 
thirty  years  are  shown  in  Plate  IX.     Nos.  5,  6,  7  and  8  are 


the  various  sizes  and  shapes  of  the  model  of  1863.  The 
high  port  of  No.  6  and  the  ring  bit  (No.  4)  show  that  the 
troopers  were  taught  that  great  severity  was  necessary  to 
conquer  their  mounts,  whereas  the  very  fact  of  putting 
such  instruments  of  torture  in  the  average  mouth  will 
cause  the  horse  to  become  frenzied  under  a  rough  hand. 


148  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

Nos.  i,  2  and  3  show  the  "Shoemaker"  bit,  which  has 
been  in  use  for  about  twenty  years,  and  which  was  recently 
abandoned  for  the  model  1 892  bit  shown  in  the  same  plate 
as  No.  4,  and  also  with  all  its  dimensions  in  Fig.  3 1 . 

This  is  a  very  mild  bit,  having  but  one  height  of  port 
for  all.  The  only  variation  is  in  the  length  of  mouth- 
piece, which  for  the  three  sizes  is  four  and  one-half,  four 
and  three-fourths  and  five  inches.* 

A  snaffle  bit,  with  rings  and  toggles  or  snaps  to  attach 
to  the  halter,  and  known  as  a  watering  bridle,  is  issued  for 
training  purposes,  riding  to  water  and  exercise,  but  is 
never  used  as  a  bridoon.  The  bridle  with  curb  bit  and 
only  one  pair  of  reins  is  used  for  all  military  riding. 
(See  Fig.  30.) 

Nearly  all  nations  in  Europe  use  the  curb  bit  and  bri- 
doon for  military  purposes.  In  Plate  X  are  shown  the 
British  bits  (No.  i),  the  German  (No.  2),  the  French  (No.  3), 
the  Russian  (No.  4),  and  Austrian  curb  bit  (No.  5). 

The  British  curb  bit  is  quite  heavy,  and  as  powerful  as 
the  one  recently  abandoned  in  the  American  service. 
The  curb  chain  is  too  large,  and  altogether  it  is  the  most 
unsatisfactory  combination  throughout  of  any  in  the  illus- 
tration. The  bridoon  is  much  larger  than  such  secondary 
bits  are  usually  made.  It  does  not  compare  favorably 


*The  horses  of  the  Fort  Leaven  worth  school  squadron,  consisting  of 
four  troops,  were  recently  measured  with  an  Austrian  mouth  guage  to 
determine  the  width  of  their  mouths.  One-third  measured  less  than  four 
inches.  Nearly  all  were  between  three  and  three-fourths  and  four  and  one- 
fourth  inches.  Only  two  horses  measured  as  much  as  five  inches. 


PL  A  TE  X. 


15°  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

with  the  other  equipment  of  the  British  cavalryman,  which 
is  second  to  none  in  Europe.  The  weight  of  the  two  bits 
is  two  and  three-fourths  pounds. 

The  French  bit  is  well  made  and  mild  in  its  action. 
The  curb  is  a  flat  steel  mail  chain,  of  good  quality.  The 
bridoon  is  a  double-jointed  snaffle.  It  is  attached  to  the 
headstall  by  toggles.  The  cheek  pieces  of  the  curb  bit  are 
straight,  and  contain  lip  strap  rings  on  the  lower  branch. 
The  weight  of  the  two  bits  is  two  pounds. 

The  German  bit  has  a  hollow  mouth-piece  of  large  di- 
mensions, and  is  intended  to  be  a  very  mild  bit.  The 
cheek  pieces  are  straight,  except  at  the  bottom  there  is  a 
slight  curve  to  the  rear  where  the  ring  is  attached.  The 
curb  is  a  double  mail  chain,  neatly  and  strongly  made. 
The  bridoon  is  the  most  perfect  of  any  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration. The  quality  of  material  and  workmanship  is  of 
the  highest  class.  The  weight  of  the  two  bits  is  one  and 
three-fourths  pounds. 

The  Russians  use  the  curb  bit  and  bridoon,  both  being 
hooked  to  the  double  headstall.  The  headstall  to  which 
the  snaffle  is  attached  forms  the  essential  part  of  the  halter. 
The  bridoon,  which  is  a  double-jointed  snaffle,  is  attached 
by  toggles.  The  curb  bit  is  provided  with  hooks  bent  out- 
ward, instead  of  rings,  for  attaching  it  to  the  headstall. 
These  hooks  are  broad  and  flat,  and  are  passed  through 
small  steel  rings  in  the  lower  end  of  the  cheek  pieces  of 
the  bridle.  The  rings  are  shown  in  the  illustration  with 
the  bits.  The  bit  is  provided  with  lip  strap  rings.  This 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  151 

curb  bit  has  the  longest  lower  branches,  in  proportion  to 
the  upper,  of  any  of  the  other  bits.  The  weight  of  the  two 
bits  is  one  and  three-fourths  pounds. 

The  Austrian  bit  is  made  upon  the  principles  laid  down 
in  their  cavalry  regulations,  and  which  are  about  as  set 
forth  in  this  chapter.  The  bit  illustrated  is  very  heavy, 
being  made  of  steel,  with  solid  mouth-piece.  The  flat  mail 
chain  curb  is  the  best  of  its  class,  and  is  not  apt  to  be  broken 
or  stretched  by  ordinary  service  wear.  The  snaffle  used 
with  this  bit  is  a  single-jointed  bit  with  rings  and  half 
cheek  guards.  The  Austrians  make  nine  different  sizes 
of  bits  in  order  to  provide  amply  for  fitting  average  horses. 
The  weight  of  the  curb  bit  alone  is  one  and  five-eighths 
pounds. 

It  is  observed  that  the  bit  and  bridoon  are  used  gener- 
ally by  European,  and  also  by  the  British  cavalry.  The 
accurate  bitting  and  training  of  their  horses  is  sufficient 
evidence  to  establish  the  great  value  of  the  combination 
for  military  purposes;  but  the  single  rein  and  curb  bit  alone 
will  probably  be  more  acceptable  in  America,  because  of 
those  who  would  form  the  bulk  of  the  recruits  in  time  of 
war  but  very  few  would  have  ever  seen  or  used  a  double- 
reined  bridle. 

In  comparing  these  bits  it  is  observed  that  there  is  no 
very  material  difference  in  those  used  in  Europe.  The 
German  is  the  mildest,  but  it  probably  answers  the  purpose 
fully  with  their  carefully  trained  horses. 

The  American  bit  is  made  of  the  best  steel,  and  neatly 


152  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

finished.  It  is  intended  to  be  very  mild,  and  will,  with 
slight  alteration,  answer  its  purpose  for  all  but  very  ex- 
ceptional cases,  provided  the  horses  are  properly  bitted 
and  trained.  It  is  much  lighter  than  any  ever  before 
issued,  and  this  is  some  compensation  for  such  faults  as 
may  be  developed  in  its  future  use. 

Taking  a  pound  out  of  the  amount  carried  in  the  horse's 
mouth  may  not  seem  to  be  a  very  important  matter  at  first 
glance,  but  when  it  is  considered  that  a  first-class  handi- 
capper  may,  by  adding  or  taking  off  a  pound  here  and 
there,  entirely  upset  all  calculations  as  to  the  result  of  a 
race  between  animals  of  equal  form,  it  must  be  seen  that 
a  pound  more  or  less  at  the  end  of  his  neck  makes  a  great 
difference  to  the  horse. 

It  will  not  do,  however,  to  carry  this  reduction  to  an 
extreme,  for  cavalry  horses  are  subject  to  exciting  condi- 
tions, and  bits  of  sufficient  size  and  degree  of  lever  power 
must  be  retained  for  the  purpose  of  controlling  animals  at 
the  charge  and  in  the  resulting  melee. 


VIII. 


BITTING  AND  TRAINING. 


End  and  Aim  of  Bitting. —  Principle  Governing  all  Bitting. —  Importance- 
of  Knowledge  of  Subject. —  Effect  of  Head  and  Neck. —  How  Bit  should 
be  Regarded. —  Rational  Treatment. —  Training. — Horse  Made  Familiar 
with  New  Surroundings. — Equipped  with  Snaffle  Bit. —  "Dumb  Jockey." 
— Riding  School  and  Track. — Establishing  Gaits. — Jumping. —  Use  of 
Longe;  Training  Halter;  Running  Rein. —  Saddle. —  Use  of  Saber  and 
Fire-Arms.  —  Selecting  and  Fitting  Curb  Bit.  —  Mouth  Gauge. — Trial 
Bit.  — Hard  and  Tender  Mouth.  — Effect  of  Seat  of  Rider.— Riding 
with  One  Hand. —  Guiding  by  Pressure  of  Rein  on  Neck. 


The  end  and  aim  of  all  bitting-  should  be  to  bring  about 
such  confidential  relations  between  rider  and  horse  as  to 
cause  the  slightest  wish  of  the  former,  when  indicated 
through  the  bit,  in  conjunction  with  pressure  of  the  reins 
upon  the  neck  or  the  legs  upon  the  flanks,  to  be  obeyed 
without  constraint,  resistance  or  exhibition  of  temper. 

The  various  purposes  to  which  horses  are  applied  de- 
mand of  course  different  details  of  handling.  One  principle 
applies  to  all,  namely:  to  get  the  whole  lever  power  of 
the  animal  to  act  in  conjunction  with  its  weight  in  the  re- 
quired direction,  and  with  such  a  degree  of  leaning  on  the 
bit  that  all  its  motions  may  be  controlled  without  interfer- 
ing in  too  abrupt  a  manner  with  its  action. 


154  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

The  ^knowledge  of  bitting  is  very  essential,  for  it  is  only 
by  means  of  it  that  perfect  control  of  the  horse  can  be  ob- 
tained without  the  infliction  of  unnecessary  pain.  It  is 
especially  important  to  cavalrymen,  for  upon  its  application 
depends  the  steadiness  of  the  horses  in  all  maneuvers  on 
the  drill  ground  and  the  field  of  battle. 

The  head  is  the  lever  by  means  of  which  command 
over  the  neck  is  gained;  its  size,  shape,  weight,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  set  on,  all  exercise  more  or  less  in- 
fluence. A  very  large  head  makes  it  extremely  difficult  to 
get  the  horse  into  anything  like  equilibrium,  but  it  does 
not  follow  that  horses  with  such  conformation  are  always 
heavy  in  hand,  for  more  depends  upon  the  way  in  which 
the  head  is  set  on  the  neck,  and  the  facility  thereby  afforded 
for  assuming  a  great  variety  of  positions,  than  on  the  abso- 
lute size  of  the  head  itself. 

In  considering  the  lever  action  of  the  head  and  neck,  it 
is  proper  to  remember  that  the  effect  produced  depends 
not  only  on  the  absolute  power  applied,  but  also  on  the  di- 
rection in  which  it  is  applied.  Considering  the  horse's 
head  as  a  lever  which  is  to  act  on  the  neck  and  bring  it  to- 
wards the  rider's  hand,  it  is  evident  that  if  the  former  be 
stretched  out  in  continuation  of  the  latter,  as  is  done  on  the 
track  by  race  horses,  there  is  no  lever  action.  In  the  same 
way  if  the  horse's  head  is  brought  in  until  it  touches  his 
neck,  there  will  be  little  if  any  lever  action. 

The  lever  action  is  greatest  when  the  head  is  at  a  right 
angle  to  the  neck;  the  more  it  departs  from  this  position , 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    IJK1ULKS.  155 

in  consequence  of  severe  bitting  or  other  causes,  the  less 
will  be  the  useful  lever  action.  With  the  great  majority 
of  horses  the  physical  conformation  of  the  jaws  opposes  no 
obstacle  to  the  head  assuming  this  desirable  position. 

The  bit  should  be  regarded  as  a  means  of  communica- 
tion between  horse  and  rider,  as  well  as  an  instrument 
which  may  check  and  master  the  animal.  The  impression 
it  conveys  may  vary  from  the  slightest  sensation  to  the 
most  intense  pain. 

If  the  intensity  of  its  effect  does  not  accord  with  the 
degree  of  sensibility  and  the  intelligence  of  the  subject,  it 
produces  effects  opposite  to  those  which  are  desired,  and 
may  provoke  stubborn  resistance  which  man  cannot  always 
easily  master. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  the  mechanical  effect  of  the  bit  be 
in  proportion  to  the  sensitiveness  of  the  mouth,  it  becomes 
a  rational  and  useful  instrument,  through  which  the  wish 
of  the  rider  may  be  indicated. 

The  theories  of  bits  and  bitting  are  given  quite  fully, 
because  ignorance  as  to  such  matters  is  so  common  amongst 
bit  makers  that  no  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  general 
representations  as  to  bits  and  other  implements  necessary 
or  useful  in  training  the  young  horse. 

Rational  treatment  produces  better  results  than  harsh 
means,  and  if  the  officer  will  himself  direct  the  training  of 
horses  until  he  is  assured  that  the  troopers  to  whose  care 
the  animals  are  intrusted  fully  appreciate  the  value  of  the 
primary  lessons,  there  will  be  less  labor  and  disappoint- 


156  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

ment  when  the  remounts  are  placed  in  the  ranks.  A  little 
patience  and  expenditure  of  time  at  first  makes  matters 
easier  later  on. 

There  are  many  books  which  prescribe  in  detail  all  the 
various  steps  in  training,  but  these  are  seldom  carried  out 
for  the  reason  that  men  are  not  available  for  the  perform- 
ance of  this  important  work,  which,  to  be  valuable,  must 
be  not  only  progressive  but  continuous.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  waste  any  time  in  teaching  unusual  gaits,  but  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  that  pains  should  be  taken  to  establish 
every  young  horse  in  his  gaits  during  the  period  he  is 
being  bitted. 

The  period  of  training  will  of  course  vary  with  the 
amount  of  instruction  the  horse  has  received  before  pur- 
chase. Horses  frequently  arrive  at  stations  in  such  a  for- 
ward state  of  training  that  all  they  require  is  to  be  famil- 
iarized with  the  sound  of  firing,  trumpets,  and  other  unusual 
noises  and  sights.  In  general,  however,  the  new  horses 
require  considerable  work  before  they  are  fit  for  the  ranks, 
because  curb  bits  are  seldom  used  on  ordinary  horse  farms. 

Contracts  all  describe  most  perfect  animals  as  to  form, 
as  well  as  that  they  shall  be  free  from  vice,  gentle  and 
broken  to  the  saddle,  but  these  requirements  produce  no 
such  uniformity  as  is  demanded  in  a  well  instructed 
squadron. 

It  is  not  enough  that  the  horse  can  be  ridden  along 
with  the  others,  but  that  he  shall  be  under  such  perfect 
control  that  he  will  leave  the  ranks  at  any  time  and  under 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  157 

any  circumstances,  without  refusing  or  crowding  towards 
the  other  horses. 

Occasionally  an  animal  will  be  found  to  resist  all 
training.  It  is  customary  in  the  American  service  to  apply 
the  Rarey  system  to  such  animals  until  brought  into  sub- 
jection. This  system  is  subsequently  applied  to  all  horses 
in  order  to  finish  their  education,  to  make  them  recog- 
nize how  completely  they  are  in  the  power  of  man,  and  to 
give  the  troopers  a  knowledge  of  the  means  to  conquer,  as 
well  as  to  render  their  horses  gentle. 

Practice  varies  in  different  organizations,  but  a  brief 
description  of  only  what  is  practicable  in  the  average  regi- 
ment will  be  given. 

Upon  arrival  of  new  horses  they  should  be  examined, 
with  a  view  to  determining  if  they  are  suffering  from  any 
injury  or  disease  which  would  prevent  their  being  put  to 
work.  Those  that  are  well  should  then  be  scattered 
amongst  old  and  gentle  horses  at  the  picket  line.  While 
the  hoof  numbers  are  perfectly  plain,  the  descriptive  lists 
should  be  compared,  and  the  horses  entered  in  the  troop 
records,  and  a  name  assigned  to  each. 

A  horse  should  be  allowed  to  grow  familiar  with  his 
surroundings,  and  made  to  understand  that  he  is  perfectly 
safe  from  any  injury.  He  should  be  fed  but  little  grain 
until  all  signs  of  the  feverish  condition  incident  to  his 
change  have  passed  away. 

His  feet  should  be  handled,  and  he  should  be  led  into 
the  blacksmith  shop  while  other  horses  are  being  shod. 


35^  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

Horses  are  often  severely  injured  when  frightened  at  the 
noise  and  sights  about  the  forge  and  anvil.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  shoe  the  horse  unless  the  ground  where  he  is  to  be 
trained  is  rocky  or  hard,  but  his  hoofs  should  be  rasped 
down  enough  to  prevent  them  from  splitting. 

Troopers  mounted  on  old  horses  should  lead  the  new 
animals  about  the  post  during  ceremonies  and  drills,  in 
order  that  they  may  not  be  frightened  at  the  band,  move- 
ments of  troops,  fluttering  of  flags,  and  many  other  things 
not  to  be  seen  in  the  vicinity  of  farms. 

The  horse  is  now  ready  to  begin  his  training  in  the 
riding  hall,  or  where  there  is  none,  on  a  ring  prepared  on 
ground  selected  for  the  purpose  at  some  place  where  the 
attention  of  the  animal  will  not  be  distracted  from  the 
work  in  hand. 

As  all  animals  are  ridden  before  being  accepted,  it  is 
usual  to  put  on  a  snaffle  bit  at  once.  This  is  attached  by 
toggles,  or  snaps,  to  the  halter,  but  for  training  new  horses 
it  is  much  better  to  use  a  regular  headstall  writh  the  snaffl-e 
bit  buckled  on,  so  that  it  can  be  adjusted  properly  on  the 
bars  at  the  same  place  the  mouth-piece  of  the  curb  bit  will 
rest  when  it  is  put  on. 

If  the  young  horse  frets  and  fails  to  feel  or  take  the  bit 
properly  when  mounted,  he  must  be  handled  very  gently, 
and  allowed  to  follow  the  lead  of  an  old  horse  quietly  about 
the  ring  at  a  walk  until  he  establishes  himself  in  the  new 
conditions  of  equilibrium  sufficiently  to  move  up  to  the  bit 
without  leaning  upon  it,  refusing  to  feel  it,  or  to  allow  it 


MORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  15,9 

to  exert  pressure  on  his  mouth.  This  must  be  continued 
from  day  to  day,  the  bending  lessons  prescribed  in  the  drill 
regulations  being  taken  up  gradually.  The  importance  of 
the  bending  lessons  is  seldom  appreciated  and  much  neg- 
lected. 

If  the  horse  continues  unable  to  take  the  bit  he  should 
be  fitted  with  a  "dumb  jockey,"  which  is  a  cross-tree  of 
w^ood  on  a  padded  surcingle.  The  reins  of  the  snaffle  bit 
are  attached  to  the  cross-trees  at  about  the  height  of  the 
rider's  hand,  and  straps  in  rear  are  carried  back  to  a  crupper, 
to  prevent  the  cross-tree  from  falling  forward.  The  straps 
should  be  so  adjusted  that  the  animal  feels  the  pressure  of 
the  mouth-piece,  and  this  may  be  gradually  increased  from 
clay  to  day  until  he  arches  his  neck  or  raises  his  head 
enough  to  lighten  his  forehand.  This  will  be  easily  deter- 
mined by  the  appearance  of  his  step.  The  horse  rigged  in 
this  manner  should  be  turned  loose  by  himself  in  a  small 
enclosure,  so  that  he  may  devote  his  brain  to  working  out 
a  solution  of  the  problem  before  him.  The  instruction  in 
this  way  should  not  be  continued  for  more  than  half  an 
hour  at  a  time,  for  if  left  until  very  tired  the  horse  loses 
his  fear  and  leans  so  heavily  on  the  bit  as  to  destroy  much 
of  the  sensitive  feeling  necessary  to  a  good  mouth.* 

The  rider  mounted  on  a  blanket  should  continue  the 


*  Under  the  advice  of  a  "practical  horseman"  of  considerable  local 
reputation,  the  author,  some  years  ago,  turned  a  colt  loose  for  hours  at  a 
time  with  a  dumb  jockey,  well  tightened  up,  to  give  him  a  good  mouth. 
The  result  was  to  reduce  the  animal's  mouth  to  so  insensitive  a  condition 
as  to  seriously  impair  his  value  for  any  purpose. 


160  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

work  on  the  track  or  in  the  school  day  by  day,  varying  the 
gaits  from  a  walk  to  a  trot,  and  finally  to  the  gallop.  The 
horse  should  be  taught  from  the  very  first  to  execute  the 
turns  by  the  pressure  of  the  outer  rein  upon  his  neck,  the 
mouth-piece  being  pulled,  if  necessary,  by  the  inner  rein. 
The  rider  must  avail  himself  constantly  of  the  use  of  his 
legs  as  aids. 

It  is  never  done,  but  would  be  a  useful  innovation,  to. 
have  a  track  laid  off  at  every  post,  so  that  at  this  period  of 
the  training  the  young  horse  could  be  established  in  his 
gaits  of  walk,  trot  and  gallop  at  the  regulation  rate  per 
mile. 

It  is  presumed  that  good  results  have  followed  the  les- 
sons which  have  occupied  such  time  as  the  intelligence 
and  progress  of  the  animal  demanded.  The  animal  should 
now  be  taught  to  leap  the  ditch  and  hurdle.  For  this  pur- 
pose he  is  taken  out  with  a  good  safe  jumper,  and  led 
quietly  at  a  walk  across  ditches  and  over  such  obstacles  as 
present  themselves,  like  logs,  rails,  piles  of  earth,  brush,  etc. 
He  is  next  made  to  leap  them  at  a  slow  gallop,  care  being 
taken  to  vary  the  course  as  much  as  possible.  When  the 
animal  ceases  to  have  any  fear,  or  to  make  any  resistance 
in  the  fields  and  pastures,  he  should  be  taught  to  jump  the 
bar  and  hurdle  in  the  riding  school.  In  order  that  he 
may  not  be  expected  to  be  led  over  all  the  time,  he  should 
now  be  equipped  with  a  longe,  or  rope  lariat;  he  should 
be  taken  up  to  the  obstacle  by  a  dismounted  man,  giving 
him  but  little  rope  at  first,  and  he  should  then  be  made  to 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  l6l 

jump.  If  necessary,  another  man  may  go  in  rear  of  the 
horse  with  a  whip,  to  touch  him  if  he  tries  to  come  back. 
If  he  jumps  without  fear  no  snapping  of  the  whip  or 
shouting  should  be  allowed,  else  he  will  connect  these  in 
his  mind  with  jumping. 

The  longe  may  be  ordinarily  attached  to  the  halter  ring, 
but  as  some  horses  are  what  is  not  inaptly  termed  in  the 
service  "  bull-headed,"  something  else  must  be  provided. 

A  useful  training  halter  may  be  prepared  by  attaching 
a  strong  strap  to  the  lower  part  of  the  cheek  pieces  of  the 
bridle,  to  go  around  the  nose  above  the  nostrils,  and  which 
can  be  tightened  under  the  chin  by  means  of  a  buckle  on 
one  end  of  the  strap  in  rear.  This  adjustable  nose  band 
may  carry  a  ring  in  rear  for  the  snap-hook  of  the  longe,  or 
an  iron  cavesson  with  a  nose-ring  may  be  padded  and 
riveted  on  in  front  to  the  nose  band. 

This  latter  gives  the  longe  holder  a  powerful  instru- 
ment for  controlling  the  horse,  and  should  be  used  with 
great  care. 

Sometimes  the  horse  will  not  hold  his  head  in  a  proper 
position,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  apply  a  running  rein, 
which  acts  directly  on  the  snaffle  bit,  independently  of  the 
reins.  The  action  of  the  running  rein  may  be  increased 
or  reduced  without  the  necessity  for  any  alteration  of 
buckles  or  straps. 

A  running  rein  consists  of  a  strap  about  eight  or  ten 
feet  long,  of  the  size  of  an  ordinary  bridle  rein,  with  pro- 
vision at  one  end  for  buckling  it  to  the  ring  on  the  near 


1 62  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

side  of  the  saddle.  A  chin  strap,  carrying  a  ring  sewed  on 
in  rear,  is  buckled  into  the  snaffle  rings  in  the  same  manner 
as  a  curb  strap.  A  single  martingale,  with  a  ring  held  at 
the  height  of  the  point  of  the  shoulder  by  means  of  a  strap 
around  the  neck,  completes  the  parts  necessary  to  operate 
the  running  rein,  which  passes  from  the  ring  on  the  left, 
side  of  the  saddle  through  the  martingale  ring,  thence 
through  the  curb  strap  ring,  back  through  the  martingale 
ring,  and  then  to  the  right  hand  of  the  rider. 

A  pull  on  the  running  rein  will  act  directly  on  the 
mouth-piece  and  draw  the  mouth  backward  and  downwrards 
towards  the  horse's  chest.  In  connection  with  the  snaffle 
reins,  the  horse's  mouth  may  be  pulled  horizontally  up- 
wards or  downwards. 

The  horse  is  now  ready  to  be  saddled,  and  the  same 
course  should  be  continued  by  the  rider  until  the  animal 
performs  everything  required  of  him  in  an  intelligent 
manner  in  the  school  and  outside.  During  this  period, 
after  he  is  saddled,  he  should  be  accustomed  to  the  saber 
and  to  fire-arms  until  he  permits  both  to  be  used  by  the 
trooper  without  fear  or  exhibition  of  nervousness.  He 
should  be  ridden  near  the  pistol  targets  until  he  goes 
equally  well  to  the  right  and  left  and  between  the  targets 
without  fear. 

The  horse  is  now  ready  for  the  curb  bit,  wrhich  should 
be  carefully  fitted  to  him.  Very  little  attention  has  ever 
been  paid  to  this  subject  in  the  American  cavalry.  It  is 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  163 

of  much  importance,  as  has  already  been  shown.  A  bit 
with  but  vslight  height  of  port  should  be  selected  and  placed 
in  the  horse's  mouth  over  the  tongue.  By  pressing  it 
lightly  against  one  side  it  will  be  seen  if  it  is  of  the  right 
width  of  mouth-piece.  If  it  is  too  narrow  it  will  pinch  the 
lips,  and  another  must  be  tried.  If  too  wide,  a  measure 
of  the  amount  which  projects  over  must  be  taken,  and  a 
mouth-piece  that  much  shorter  be  selected.  The  selection 
of  a  bit  of  proper  width  may  be  facilitated  by  slipping  a 
smooth  stick  into  the  horse's  mouth,  placing  it  opposite 
the  chin  groove,  and  then  bringing  the  thumbs  lightly 
against  the  horse's  lips.  Hold  the  hands  firmly  in  place 
on  the  stick  while  removing  it  from  the  horse's  mouth,  and 
have  an  assistant  cut  notches  opposite  the  ends  of  the 
thumbs.  This  will  give  the  length  of  the  mouth-piece 
between  the  cheek  pieces. 

A  proper  width  of  bit  having  been  determined  upon,  it 
should  be  attached  to  the  headstall  and  adjusted  as  nearly 
opposite  the  chin  groove  as  possible,  having  due  regard  to 
the  position  of  the  tusks. 

If  a  horse  has  been 'accustomed  to  a  curb  bit  buckled 
up  against  the  corners  of  his  mouth,  he  will  fret  a  good 
deal  when  the  bit  is  lowered  to  a  place  opposite  the  chin 
groove.  If  after  trial  during  a  period  sufficiently  long  to 
determine  whether  the  bit  suits  the  mouth,  it  is  found  not 
to  be  severe  enough,  a  bit  of  the  same  width,  but  with  a 
higher  port,  must  be  selected. 


164  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

Theoretically  it  is  desirable  to  have  several  heights  of 
port  for  each  width  of  mouth-piece.  In  several  European 
armies  the  number  of  sizes  has  been  reduced  recently  to 
very  few.  In  the  American  service  three  sizes  are  issued, 
but  the  only  difference  is  in  the  length  of  mouth-piece.  If 
two  heights  of  port  were  made  for  each  size,  this  would 
provide  amply  for  all  service  requirements. 

After  having  secured  a  bit  of  satisfactory  dimensions, 
the  curb  strap  or  chain  should  be  carefully  adjusted.  It 
should  never  be  made  quite  tight;  there  should  be  room 
enough  left  for  the  first  and  second  fingers  of  the  right 
hand  to  pass  flat  between  it  and  the  chin.  By  gently  pull- 
ing the  reins  with  the  left  hand,  whilst  the  two  fingers  of 
the  right  hand  are  in  this  position,  it  will  be  easy  to  ascer- 
tain whether  any  pinching  action  occurs,  in  which  case 
something  is  wrong.  The  chain  or  curb  strap  should 
tighten  in  the  chin  groove  before  the  end  of  the  cheek 
piece  has  passed  over  an  arc  of  35°. 

After  going  over  the  adjustment  of  the  bridle  and  bit 
sufficiently  to  insure  its  correctness,  it  is  then  necessary  to 
mount  and  try  the  horse  with  it,  to, determine  if  the  mouth- 
piece is  adapted  to  the  particular  mouth  under  considera- 
tion as  regards  severity.  If  not,  try  different  heights  of 
port  until  a  correct  bit  is  found. 

Horses  seem  able  to  adapt  themselves  after  a  time  to 
many  brutal  forms  of  mouth-pieces,  but  it  is  well  to  re- 
member that  a  total  absence  of  stiffness,  constraint,  or 
painful  action,  are  the  characteristics  of  good  bitting;  if 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  165 

these  be  attained,  ready  obedience  to  the  rider's  hands 
and  legs  will  follow.* 

The  dimensions  and  proportions  prescribed  for  bits 
should  be  productive  of  satisfactory  results  in  most  cases. 
Some  horses  will  of  course  be  found  which  will  appear  to 
defy  all  rules.  Some  may  need  greater  severity  than  is 
produced  by  the  bit  prescribed  for  average  horses.  If  the 
lower  branch  be  lengthened  it  will  of  course  give  greater 
power,  and  some  horses  seem  to  require  this. 

After  the  government  has  been  put  to  the  expense  of 
providing  horses  which  turn  out  utterly  unsatisfactory  as 
to  bitting  and  saddle  qualities,  it  appears  at  first  thought 
wasteful  to  cast  them  out,  but  mature  consideration  should 
govern  in  such  matters,  and  whenever  an  animal  exhibits 
qualities  which  prevent  his  being  ridden  in  ranks  with 
the  ordinary  appliances  furnished  for  the  purpose,  he 
should  not  receive  any  more  consideration  than  a  bent  gun 
barrel  or  broken  saber  blade.  It  is  more  economical  to 
condemn  bolters  and  vicious  horses  than  to  supply  an 
infinite  variety  of  bits. 

An  Austrian,  VON  WEYROTHER,  invented  a  mouth 
gauge  for  ascertaining  all  the  necessary  dimensions  of  the 
horse's  mouth.  It  is  made  of  steel,  and  consists  of  a  bar, 


*The  U.  S.  cavalry  bit,  model  of  1863,  was  used  in  all  the  successful 
cavalry  raids  and  actions  during  the  last  two  years  of  the  war.  The  length 
of  the  lower  branch  is  three  times  the  distance  from  the  center  of  the  mouth- 
piece to  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  curb  chain  hook.  The  width  of  port 
is  1.09  inches,  and  the  height  of  port  for  the  four  sizes  of  bits  issued  is  .5, 1.5, 
2,  and  2.25  inches,  and  one  is  a  ring  bit  (Plate  9). 


1 66 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


ab  (Fig.  32 A),  about  six  inches  long,  fitted  on  one  side 
at  right  angles  with  a  fixed  cheek  piece  cd,  and  having  on 
the  other  side  a  sliding  cheek  piece  ef,  fitted  with  a  screw 
for  fixing  it  where  required.  The  bar  ab  is  made  oval  in 
the  transverse  section,  with  the  greater  axis  about  one 
inch,  in  order  to  displace  the  lips  nearly  as  the  mouth- 
piece does,  and  is  usually  graduated  throughout. 


figs-  32  A  and  32  R. 

If  this  gauge  be  placed  in  the  horse's  mouth  like  a  bit, 
with  the  bar  ab  at  exactly  the  proper  place  for  the  bit, 
opposite  the  chin  groove,  the  fixed  cheek  piece  cd  being 
then  held  gently  up  to  the  off  side  of  the  mouth,  the  oper- 
ator facing  the  horse's  forehead,  the  sliding  cheek  piece 
ef  may  be  shoved  up  close  enough  to  the  cheek,  at  the 
near  side,  not  to  displace  the  lips,  and  then  fixed  with  the 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  l6/ 

screw.  Removing  the  gauge,  the  proper  dimension  for 
the  width  of  the  mouth-piece  may  be  read  off  the  scale 
on  ab. 

The  instrument  is  also  fitted  with  a  rod  gh,  which 
slides  up  and  down  the  movable  cheek  piece  cf,  which  is 
graduated  into  inches,  and  eighths  or  tenths  on  its  lower 
limb.  This  contrivance  enables  the  measurement  of  the 
height  of  the  bars  to  be  taken.  The  instrument,  adjusted 
to  the  proper  width  of  the  horse's  mouth,  is  placed  as 
before,  with  the  bar  ab  exactly  opposite  the  chin  groove, 
but  underneath  the  tongue,  and  is  then  wheeled  around 
on  its  own  axis  until  the  upper  limbs  of  the  cheek  pieces 
stand  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  general  line  of  the 
horse's  face.  This  brings  the  lower  limbs  in  the  opposite 
direction  towards  the  neck,  and  the  rod  gh  is  then  shoved 
up  until  it  presses  lightly  into  the  chin  groove,  taking  care 
that  the  gauge  stands  square,  and  that  the  mouth-piece 
lies  equally  on  both  bars  of  the  mouth.  The  rod  gh  is 
then  screwed  fast  whilst  the  cheek  piece  cf  is  loosened 
altogether,  so  that  the  latter  may  be  removed  without  dis- 
turbing the  rod  gh ;  the  height  of  the  bar  may  then  be 
read  off  on  the  lower  limb  of  cf. 

A  Prussian  officer  invented  a  trial  bit  some  years  ago 
(Fig.  $2B).  This  consists  of  two  cheek  pieces,  into  which 
may  be  fitted  in  succession  spare  mouth-pieces,  the  width 
being  varied  by  the  adjustment  of  a  number  of  small 
plates  pp  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  removable  at 
will  from  the  inside  to  the  outside  of  the  cheek  piece. 


168  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

Having  the  width  of  the  mouth,  and  obtaining-  the  height 
of  the  bars  by  means  of  the  mouth  gauge,  the  sliding  ring 
pieces  rr  may  be  shifted  until  the  upper  cheek  piece  has 
the  required  length.  There  only  remains  now  to  slide  the 
rein  rings  ss  up  or  down  until  the  proper  proportional 
length  of  the  lower  cheek  has  been  obtained.  The  curb 
hooks  and  headstall  may  now  be  attached  and  the  horse 
tried  with  the  bit.  If  the  adjustment  is  correct,  and  he 
takes  to  the  bit  readily,  it  is  only  necessary  to  read  off  the 
dimensions  and  have  one  constructed  accordingly. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  two  common  and 
grave  defects  of  bits  are  "falling  through"  and  "standing 
stiff;"  that  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  every  horse 
will  go  much  better  with  a  well-fitting  bit,  properly  placed, 
than  with  the  contrary,  and  that  many  otherwise  fretful 
and  dangerous  horses  become  perfectly  tractable  if  properly 
bitted. 

Civilians  need  not  use  a  curb  bit,  but  cavalrymen  have 
no  option  in  the  matter,  and  should  by  all  means  be  taught 
the  practical  value  of  a  properly  fitted  curb  bit,  and  its  ad- 
vantages over  one  that  does  not  fit. 

It  may  be  well  to  explain  here  why  the  fresh  and  sen- 
sitive mouth  of  the  young  horse  conveys  the  sensation  of 
hardness  to  the  hand  of  the  rider,  and  why  the  same  mouth, 
after  it  has  really  been  rendered  more  or  less  callous  by  the 
application  of  the  mouth-piece  to  its  delicate  organization, 
comes  to  be  called  tender. 

When  a  horse  is  mounted  for  the  first  time  the  equi- 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  169 

librium  of  the  animal  is  disturbed;  the  young  horse  bores 
on  his  bit,  trying  to  acquire  a  new  point  to  lean  on  —  a  fifth 
leg,  as  it  were  ;  he  is  hard-mouthed.  But  when  the  animal 
has  learned  to  carry  itself  and  the  rider,  or  acquired  an 
artificial  equilibrium  suited  to  the  altered  circumstances, 
it  no  longer  seeks  this  support,  and  the  mouth  is  called 
tender.  * 

If  a  horse  be  first  ridden  without  a  bit  until  brought 
into  equilibrium  with  his  rider,  and  a  light  snaffle  bit  be 
then  put  in  his  mouth,  it  will  be  found  very  sensitive,  and 
it  will  be  several  days  before  he  will  take  the  bit. 

From  what  has  just  been  stated,  it  will  be  easy  to  un- 
derstand how  the  seat  of  the  rider  comes  to  exercise  so 
great  an  influence  on  the  horse's  mouth,  that  the  same 
horse  will  go  light  with  one  and  heavy  with  another  rider. 
It  is  a  question  of  equilibrium.  One  rider  assumes  a  seat 
that  favors;  another,  one  that  more  or  less  impedes  the 
efforts  of  the  horse  to  get  into  balance  —  for  horses  always 
try  to  do  this.  Supposing  the  seat,  so  far  as  the  distribu- 
tion of  weight  is  concerned,  to  be  identical,  the  unsteady 
rider  will  seek  a  support  in  the  reins,  and  the  horse  imme- 
diately bores  on  the  bit;  the  rider  with  a  steady  seat  has  a 
light  hand,  and  the  horse  is  therefore  tender-mouthed. 

Lightness  or  heaviness  of  the  rider's  hand  depends 
mainly  upon  the  stability  of  his  seat.  If  he  has  not  a  good 
seat,  and  relies  mainly  upon  stirrups  and  reins,  the  only 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  put  as  light  a  bit  as  possible  in  the 
horse's  mouth,  to  save  it  from  pain. 


I  70  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

If  the  horse  is  harassed  by  a  very  tight  curb  chain  or 
strap  pressing  against  his  under  jaw,  or  by  a  high  port 
rasping  the  tender  ridges  of  his  palate,  he  cannot  properly 
take  the  bit,  even  though  he  has  already  been  trained  to 
the  action  of  a  mouth-piece. 

The  high  port  bits  used  by  cow-boys,  some  of  which 
have  tongue  rings  in  addition,  serve  their  purpose  with 
the  hardy  little  ponies  on  the  range,  but  in  recent  years 
the  tendency  is  to  discard  the  harsh  bits,  and  depend  more 
upon  the  training  of  the  pony. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  cow-boys  must  have  well  trained 
ponies  for  all  round-up  work,  and  it  is  only  during  the 
period  of  probation  that  the  animal's  mouth  suffers.  After 
being  properly  trained  the  horse  is  never  ridden  on  the 
bit.  The  cow-boy  does  not  ride  with  a  tight  rein,  and  his 
seat  must  be  so  secure  as  to  be  entirely  independent  of  the 
horse's  mouth.  His  methods  are  of  little  value  as  models 
for  any  part  of  cavalry  training,  but  on  his  own  ground 
the  cow-boy  naturally  holds  the  cavalryman  in  contempt.* 

All  horses  should  be  trained  with  the  snaffle  bit  until 
they  understand  thoroughly  the  use  of  the  bit  and  reins. 

*  During  the  past  year  the  author  visited  a  large  ranch  in  New  Mexico, 
and  witnessed  the  method  now  practiced  in  breaking  range  horses.  It  for- 
merly was,  and  still  is  in  many  places,  the  custom  to  saddle  and  bridle 
young  horses,  and  lead  them  into  heavy  sand.  Here  a  rider  mounted,  or 
more  often  a  bag  of  sand  was  tied  on,  and  the  animal  encouraged  to  buck 
until  exhausted.  The  range  horses  referred  to  were  ridden  by  selected 
horse  breakers;  no  bit  was  used,  but  reins  were  attached  to  rope  halters. 
The  horses  were  taken  out  across  country,  and  encouraged  to  run  rather 
than  buck.  They  were  taught  to  turn  by  the  reins  without  that  disturbance 
to  equilibrium  which  comes  from  bitting  in  its  early  stages. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  171 

A  horse  that  cannot  bear  the  pressure  of  the  bit  in  mod- 
eration is  of  no  value  for  saddle  purposes.  If  he  cannot 
perform  satisfactorily  with  a  snaffle  bit,  a  curb  bit  will 
produce  that  fidgety,  uneasy  motion  characteristic  of  jib- 
bers and  prancing  horses. 

A  trooper  must  ride  with  one  hand,  and  have  the  other 
free  to  use  his  arms;  therefore  the  horse  must  be  trained 
to  obey  the  pressure  of  the  reins  upon  his  neck,  and  the 
legs  upon  his  flanks.  This  is  the  most  essential,  yet  the 
most  neglected  part  of  training.  The  bit  should  be  mainly 
used  to  prevent  the  horse  from  forging  ahead  of  the  line, 
from  bolting,  to  moderate  the  gait,  and  to  halt.  All 
changes  of  direction  should  be  accomplished  by  pressure 
of  the  outer  rein  upon  the  horse's  neck.  In  this  way  the 
horse  can  be  moved  on  the  circumference  of  a  large  circle, 
or  he  may  be  turned  to  the  right  or  left  on  his  own  ground. 

Even  with  rational  bits,  good  results  can  only  be  ob- 
tained through  the  exercise  of  judgment,  patience  and 
painstaking  care.  The  difference  between  riding  a  prop- 
erly bitted  and  trained  saddle  animal  and  the  ordinary 
leather-mouthed  horse,  is  about  the  same  as  that  between 
riding  in  a  carriage  and  a  coal  cart. 


CHAPTER 


SADDLES. 


Value  of  Knowledge  of  Construction  and  Adjustment. —  Under  Surface: 
Shape;  Size  Proportioned  to  Weight  Carried. —  Upper  Surface:  Size 
Proportioned  to  Bulk  Carried. — Importance  of  Shape  of  Seat. — Where  to 
Put  the  Weight  in  Saddle. — Position  of  Saddle  on  the  Horse. — Materials 
for  Construction. —  Military  Saddles. —  Side  Bars:  Length;  Shape; 
Adjustable. —  Experiment  to  Show  Proper  Adjustment  of  Pack. —  Pad- 
ding: Pads;  Blankets. —  Cruppers. — Breast  Straps. —  Rules  for  Selection 
and  Arrangement  of  Saddle  and  Pack. 


It  seems  incredible  that  the  mechanical  arrangement 
of  the  saddle,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  adjusted  to 
the  horse's  back,  can  have  any  effect  upon  success  in  war; 
yet  so  marked  are  the  results  of  defective  saddles,  or  igno- 
rance as  to  their  proper  adjustment  on  service,  that  the 
evil  effects  are  as  much  to  be  feared  as  an  enterprising 
enemy. 

It  is  a  matter  of  importance  that  the  mechanical  prin- 
ciples applicable  to  saddles  should  be  well  understood,  as 
it  will  enable  the  rider  to  ascertain  exactly  what  is  desired, 
and  to  attain  the  end  with  a  minimum  of  injury  to  the 
horse's  back.  This  protection  of  the  back  from  injury  is 
a  matter  for  constant  consideration  in  all  cavalry  com- 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  1 73 

mands,  and  the  full  accomplishment  of  that  end  demands 
knowledge,  experience,  and  painstaking  care  on  the  part 
of  officers. 

In  examining  the  saddle,  beginning  with  the  under 
surface  or  portion  coming  in  contact  with  the  horse's  backr 
two  principal  points  present  themselves  for  consideration: 
its  shape  and  its  size.  One  general  mechanical  principle 
applies  to  both,  namely:  that  the  larger  the  surface  over 
which  a  given  amount  of  pressure  is  equally  spread  or 
divided,  the  less  will  be  the  action  on  any  given  point  of 
the  other  surface  in  contact.  In  other  words,  the  under 
surface  of  the  saddle  should  bear  as  nearly  as  possible  the 
same  relation  to  that  part  of  the  horse's  back  it  is  intended 
to  occupy,  as  a  mould  does  to  the  cast  that  is  taken  from 
it,  excepting  that  strip  lying  over  the  horse's  backbone, 
which  should  remain  altogether  out  of  contact. 

The  idea  of  making  one  portion  come  into  closer  con- 
tact than  another,  "giving  a  gripe,"  with  the  intention  of 
preventing  the  saddle  slipping,  is  altogether  erroneous, 
for  the  result  of  concentrating  the  pressure  on  one  point 
or  line  is  very  apt  to  be  a  sore  back. 

As  regards  size  or  extent  of  the  under  surface,  the 
greater  this  is  with  a  given  weight,  the  less  will  be  the 
pressure  on  any  given  point,  and  consequently  the  less  risk 
of  sore  back  ;  provided  always,  that  the  pressure  be  equally 
distributed  over  the  whole  surface. 

There  must,  however,  be  some  limit  to  the  size  of  a 
saddle,  for  its  own  absolute  weight  is  a  matter  for  serious 


1/4  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

consideration.  The  size  should  be  proportioned  to  the 
weight  to  be  carried.  The  jockey's  saddle  may  be  reduced 
to  a  mere  contrivance  upon  which  to  hang  a  pair  of  stir- 
rups, but  the  average  individual  requires  something  with 
more  substance. 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  weight  of  the  saddle 
may  be  decreased  without  its  useful  under  surface  being 
made  too  small.  The  first  is  to  avoid  extending  the  frame 
beyond  the  surfaces  where  it  really  has  to  support  pressure. 
This  being  exercised  chiefly  in  a  perpendicular  direction, 
it  is  useless  to  extend  the  side  bars  far  down  over  the  ribs. 
The  second  way  is  to  use  for  the  saddle-tree  materials 
combining  great  strength  and  moderate  elasticity,  with 
the  least  possible  weight. 

As  the  under  surface  of  the  saddle  is  large  in  propor- 
tion to  the  weight  to  be  carried,  so  the  upper  surface,  or 
seat,  should  be  proportioned  to  the  bulk  of  the  rider. 
There  is  positive  disadvantage  in  having  the  seat  larger 
than  is  necessary,  but  it  is  the  form  or  shape  which  is  of 
greatest  importance. 

If  the  ridge  of  the  saddle  be  horizontal,  imperfect  con- 
tact results  ;  it  is  therefore  best  to  dip  this  ridge  and  spread 
it  into  a  more  or  less  concave  surface  where  the  weight  of 
the  rider  is  applied.  As  the  form  of  seat  used  by  the  rider 
will  depend  considerably  on  the  location  of  the  lowest  point 
of  this  concave  surface,  it  must  be  arranged  with  accuracy; 
then  the  rider  can  bring  the  greatest  amount  of  surface 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  1/5 

possible  of  himself  and  saddle  into  permanent  contact 
without  undue  constraint  on  his  part. 

Supposing  the  saddle  to  have  the  proper  form  and  size, 
the  next  point  to  be  determined  is  where  to  put  the  weight. 
As  man  cannot  be  distributed  over  the  whole  upper  part  of 
the  saddle  like  inert  matter,  it  is  necessary  to  place  the 
rider's  center  of  gravity  over  the  center  of  the  bearing 
surface  of  the  saddle,  for  this  is  the  point  which,  being 
loaded,  transmits  the  pressure  equally  to  the  rest  of  the 
surface.* 

The  saddle  only  covers  a  portion  of  the  back,  and  is 
calculated  to  fit  approximately  in  one  particular  location. 
It  should  be  so  placed  as  to  interfere  the  least  with  the 
action  of  the  muscles  of  the  horse,  and  this  condition  will 
be  best  met  when  the  saddle  is  located  on  the  broad  flat 
tendon  covering  the  center  of  the  horse's  back.  (See 
Plate  II.)  This  will  also  locate  the  weight  near  the  per- 
pendiculars passing  through  the  centers  of  motion  and 


*For  a  simple  and  practical  illustration  of  this  fact,  take  a  small  rectan- 
gular table  and  place  it  exactly  level  on  sand  or  smooth,  soft  ground;  put  a 
weight  precisely  in  the  center  of  the  table  and  measure  the  depth  to  which 
the  feet  have  been  forced  into  the  soil ;  it  will  be  found,  if  the  soil  is  homo- 
geneous, that  all  of  the  legs  have  penetrated  to  an  equal  depth.  Shift  the 
table  to  a  new  location,  place  the  weight  near  one  end,  measure  the  penetra- 
tion again,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  two  legs  nearest  the  weight  have 
sunk  deeper  than  the  others.  The  effect  of  the  weight  at  one  end  of  the 
table  is  similar  to  what  happens  when  a  rider  sits  at  one  end  of  the  saddle, 
generally  the  hinder  one ;  the  pressure  on  the  hind  end  of  the  saddle  tilts  up 
the  front  end,  and  the  tendency  of  every  movement  of  the  horse  and  rider 
is  to  shove  the  saddle  forward  until  stopped  by  the  withers.  The  immediate 
result  is  to  slip  the  saddle  blanket  back,  and  expose  the  withers  to  a  bruising 
more  or  less  severe. 


1/6  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

gravity,  and  therefore  cause  an  equable  distribution  of  the 
weight  of  both  horse  and  rider  on  all  four  legs,  both  in  a 
state  of  rest  and  motion.  There  will  be  less  tendency  to 
disturbance  of  the  saddle  or  the  seat  of  the  rider  when 
the  horse  is  in  motion  than  at  any  other  point. 

The  point  where  the  center  of  the  saddle  should  rest 
may  be  found  practically  by  locating  the  fourth  and  fifth 
short  ribs  from  the  rear,  and  following  up  the  space 
between  them  to  the  back.  This  will  be  the  point  on  the 
spine  near  the  center  of  motion,  but  the  shape  of  the  horse 
will  have  much  to  do  with  the  saddle  remaining  in  this 
position.  The  American,  or  McClellan  saddle,  will  not  so 
remain  on  many  horses  unless  a  double  cincha  is  used. 

Wood,  iron  or  steel  plates,  and  leather,  constitute  the 
principal  materials  of  which  saddles  are  constructed. 

Military  saddles  are  best  made  wholly  of  wood,  or  with 
only  such  simple  plates  of  metal  added  as  are  necessary  to 
secure  wooden  parts  in  place.  The  necessity  of  attaching 
a  pack  makes  the  question  of  neat  appearance  altogether 
secondary,  and  the  weight  to  be  carried  renders  it  impera- 
tive to  economize  every  ounce  that  is  possible. 

v  There  is  much  variation  in  military  saddles,  both  as  to 
shape  and  capacity  for  carrying  packs.  They  are  nearly 
all  provided  with  large  side  bars,  some  of  which  are  much 
longer  than  others.  Nearly  all  are  made  with  arches  suf- 
ficiently high  to  clear  the  horse's  withers  and  back. 

The  object  of  long  side  bars  is  to  enable  the  pack  to  be 
attached  so  that  it  will  not  rest  on  the  back,  but  they  are  a 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  177 

disadvantage  when  made  so  long  that  they  receive  any  of 
the  muscular  action  of  the  fore  and  hind  quarters.  The 
short  and  broad  side  bars  answer  the  purpose  when  the 
pack  is  secured,  as  in  American  saddles. 

The  shape  of  the  side  bars  is  a  most  important  item, 
and  the  angle  which  they  make  with  each  other  must  be 
fixed  to  suit  the  average  horse  of  the  class  purchased  for 
cavalry  service. 

Saddles  with  adjustable  side  bars  have  been  tried  with 
some  success,  but  they  have  not  been  deemed  worthy  of 
adoption  for  military  use  in  America,  although  the  Aus- 
trians  have  introduced  the  principle  in  a  portion  of  their 
cavalry  saddles.  The  advantage  claimed  for  saddles  con- 
structed on  this  principle  is,  that  in  campaigns  where  hard 
marching  and  scanty  forage  prevail,  the  horses  fall  away 
rapidly,  and  the  loss  of  flesh  under  the  saddle  is  not  always 
uniform;  hence,  the  ordinary  saddle  ceases  to  fit  and  the 
horse's  back  becomes  sore,  whereas  the  saddle  with  adjust- 
able side  bars  may  be  altered  to  suit  the  varying  condition 
of  the  horse. 

If  a  wooden  horse  be  placed  with  the  legs  upon  two 
platform  scales,  and  the  packed  saddle  be  placed  upon  it 
as  nearly  as  possible  as  it  would  be  upon  a  live  horse,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  cantle  end  is  almost  twice  as  heavy 
as  the  pommel  end.  Let  a  rider  now  seat  himself  in  the 
saddle  with  his  feet  in  the  stirrups,  and  the  proportions 
become  materially  changed,  being  about  five  pounds 
weight  at  the  pommel  end  to  every  six  pounds  at  the 


i;8  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

cantle  end.  By  standing  in  the  stirrups,  or  pressing  them 
slightly  to  the  front,  the  preponderance  of  the  cantle  is 
further  decreased.* 

To  cause  the  pressure  of  the  saddle  to  be  equable  it  is 
necessary  to  remove  the  preponderance  of  weight  from  the 
rear  of  the  saddle.  This  may  be  done  by  putting  more  of 
the  pack  on  the  pommel,  or  by  placing  the  stirrups  in 
front  of  the  center  of  the  saddle,  where  they  theoretically 
belong. 

Owing  to  the  muscular  action  which  takes  place  near 
the  withers,  it  is  found  in  practice  a  dangerous  expedient 
to  overload  the  pommel,  and  the  usual  plan  adopted  is  to 
attach  the  stirrups  slightly  in  front  of  the  center.  This 
enables  the  horse  to  carry  the  load  to  better  advantage, 
and  the  rider  to  occupy  the  seat  with  his  legs  in  some  one 
of  the  positions  customary  amongst  civilized  nations,  par- 
ticularly that  prescribed  for  American  soldiers. 


*The  following  practical  experiment  is  of  interest  in  directing  attention 
to  the  arrangement  of  the  saddle  and  some  of  its  attachments: 

If  the  point  on  each  side  bar  be  found,  which  is  equi-distant  from  the 
saddle  nails  placed  at  the  junctions  of  the  pommel  and  cantle  with  the  side 
bars,  and  a  line  be  made  to  connect  the  two  points  thus  found,  it  will  cross 
the  seat  at  its  lowest  point.  If  now  the  saddle  tree  be  suspended  by  a  wire 
attached  at  the  middle  of  this  line,  it  will  balance  quite  accurately.  This 
may  then  be  taken  as  the  center  of  the  saddle.  The  centers  of  the  cincha 
rings  should  be  on  the  prolongation  of  the  line  connecting  the  points  found, 
thus  assuring  equable  pressure  when  the  cincha  is  tightened. 

While  the  saddle  is  still  suspended  by  the  wire  attach  the  stirrups, 
cincha,  equipments,  arms  and  pack.  It  will  be  found  that  the  balance  has 
been  destroyed  to  such  an  extent  that  from  twenty-three  to  twenty-five 
pounds  will  be  required  on  the  pommel  before  it  is  regained.  If  rations, 
horseshoes  and  ammunition  are  added  to  the  load  in  the  saddle-bags,  the 
preponderance  of  the  weight  at  the  cantle  will  be  still  greater. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  1/9 

Aside  from  equalizing  the  weight  at  the  two  ends  of 
the  saddle,  the  question  of  distribution  of  pack  presents 
itself  in  another  way. 

While  the  rider  sits  with  his  legs  hanging  down,  the 
heaviest  part  of  his  body  is  above  the  horse's  back.  When 
the  pack  is  added,  if  piled  upon  his  back,  as  is  the  custom 
in  some  armies,  it  will  make  the  horse  with  his  load  top- 
heavy. 

As  the  center  of  gravity  lies  below  the  middle  of  the 
horse,  the  adjustment  of  the  pack  must  be  such  as  to  pre- 
vent elevating  this  center  too  much.  For  this  reason  the 
saddle-bags,  lariat,  canteen,  carbine  and  saber  should  be 
hung  well  down  on  the  side  of  the  horse,  and  the  pommel 
and  cantle  packs  strapped  down  near  the  ends  to  keep 
them  close  to  the  saddle. 

The  inability  of  an  animal  to  recover  itself  with  a  top- 
heavy  pack  has  been  frequently  demonstrated  in  service, 
when  sure-footed  pack  mules  have  rolled  down  mountain 
sides,  or  fallen  over  canon  trails,  while  following  scouting 
detachments  of  cavalry. 

It  is  necessary  to  place  a  yielding  substance  between 
the  horse's  back  and  the  saddle  bars.  This  may  be  done 
by  padding  the  under  surface  of  the  bars,  or  by  the  use  of 
a  detachable  pad  or  a  blanket. 

Padding  is  usually  confined  to  civilian  saddles,  but 
there  are  several  nations  which  still  use  it  on  military 
saddles.  The  objection  to  the  use  of  padding  in  saddles 
designed  to  carry  heavy  loads  is  that  it  dries  in  lumps, 


ISO  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

draws  out  of  shape,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  much  difficulty, 
usually  requiring-  an  expert  saddler  to  rearrange  the  stuf- 
fing to  meet  the  varying  conditions  of  the  horse's  back  on 
service.  Upon  arriving  in  camp  at  night  accumulations 
of  dust  and  sweat  are  apt  to  be  neglected/resulting  the 
following  day  in  abrasions  of  the  skin. 

The  only  semblance  to  padding  on  heavy  American 
saddles,  such  as  are  used  by  cow-boys,  consists  in  a  layer 
of  sheep  skin  on  the  under  surface,  and  this  is  more  to 
prevent  the  saddle  blanket  from  slipping  than  for  use  as  a 
cushion. 

Saddle  pads  made  of  hair,  felt  and  wool  have  all  been 
tried  very  thoroughly  in  the  American  cavalry.  There 
can  be  no  variation  from  day  to  day  in  the  position  of  the 
pad  on  the  back,  and  in  case  of  a  bruise  or  sore,  it  is  fre- 
quently necessary  to  cut  a  hole  in  the  pad.  None  of  the 
pads  are  of  use  to  cover  the  animal.  The  hair  pad  is  the 
most  expensive  when  properly  made,  and  is  probably  the 
best.  The  felt  pad  while  useful  for  pleasure  riding  is  not 
adapted  to  military  service.  It  works  up  into  the  opening 
between  the  bars,  producing  much  discomfort  to  the  rider. 
It  also  wears  out  rapidly  in  particular  spots  where  pressure 
is  permanent. 

The  saddle  blanket  was  adopted  for  American  cavalry 
because  it  has  stood  the  severe  trials  of  service  better  than 
any  proposed  substitute.  It  can  be  used  to  cover  the  horse 
in  bad  weather,  and  when  not  needed  by  the  animal  is  used 
by  the  trooper  to  make  his  bed  on  the  earth  a  trifle  less 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  l8l 

hard.  The  claim  that  a  trooper  will  cover  himself  and  let 
his  horse  suffer  in  bad  weather,  does  not  pertain  to  properly 
disciplined  commands.  The  blanket  does  not  change  posi- 
tion with  every  movement  of  the  saddle,  and  therefore  does 
not  wear  off  the  hair  of  the  horse's  back.  The  blanket  can 
be  shaken  out  and  refolded,  so  as  to  present  a  fresh,  dry 
and  soft  surface,  which  is  much  appreciated  by  the  horse, 
for  he  is  made  more  comfortable,  just  as  the  trooper  is  by 
shaking  out  and  rearranging  his  bed  blankets  in  a  perma- 
nent camp. 

The  only  disadvantage  possessed  by  the  blanket  is  its 
tendency  to  work  out  behind,  caused  by  the  hair  of  the 
horse  pointing  to  the  rear,  opposed  to  the  smooth  under 
surface  of  the  saddle.  This  could  be  corrected  by  putting 
an  under  surface  of  sheep  skin,  felt  or  hair  on  the  saddle, 
but  it  has  not  been  regarded  as  sufficiently  serious  to  de- 
mand the  change. 

After  severe  competitive  trials  the  American  cavalry 
pronounced  in  favor  of  the  blanket's  superiority  over  all 
pads. 

A  properly  folded  wool  blanket  will  seldom  cause  any 
trouble  in  winter.  Sore  backs  are  then  very  rare,  and 
when  they  do  occur  may  nearly  always  be  traced  to  some 
minor  injury  received  in  rolling,  or  from  being  bitten  by 
another  horse,  and  which  subsequently  becomes  aggravated 
by  the  saddle. 

In  summer,  however,  the  heat  arising  from  the  use  of 
heavy  wool  blankets  is  a  prolific  source  of  puffed  backs, 


1 82  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

which,  if  not  properly  and  promptly  attended  to,  soon 
result  seriously.  In  warm  weather  men  are  much  more 
apt  to  lounge  in  their  saddles,  particularly  during  night 
marches,  when  overcome  by  fatigue. 

Expert  packers  recognize  this,  and  as  the  large  leather 
bags,  called  aparejos,  are  used  with  both  blanket  and 
corona  of  wool,  they  avoid  some  of  the  danger  from  heating 
by  using  a  piece  of  cotton  canvas,  which  is  placed  directly 
on  the  back,  and  upon  which  the  blanket  and  corona  are 
then  laid.  They  take  the  additional  precaution  to  leave 
the  blanket  and  aparejo  or  pack  saddle  on  the  animal  for 
some  time  after  the  load  has  been  removed,  to  enable  the 
back  to  cool  gradually. 

Cruppers  no  longer  form  a  part  of  the  saddle  equip- 
ment for  general  use,  but  are  issued  in  isolated  cases  where 
the  shape  of  the  horse  causes  the  saddle  to  have  a  tendency 
to  slip  forward  and  bruise  the  withers.  Their  use  for  mil- 
itary saddles  is  to  be  avoided  when  possible,  as  the  great 
weight  of  the  rider  and  packed  saddle  is  apt  to  cause  the 
crupper  to  lacerate  the  tail,  particularly  in  leaping  over 
obstacles. 

Breast  straps  are  only  used  upon  a  few  ill-shaped  horses 
saved  from  condemnation  by  the  possession  of  some  good 
qualities,  counterbalancing  their  defective  girth. 

The  following  rules  should  guide  in  the  selection  and 
arrangement  of  saddles: 

First.     Each  horse  should  have  a  saddle  fitted  to  his 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  183 

back  when  in  medium  condition,  the  upper  surface  being 
of  a  size  to  accommodate  the  rider. 

Second.  The  cincha  should  be  attached  opposite  the 
center  of  the  bearing  surface  of  the  saddle. 

Third.  The  stirrups  should  be  attached  slightly  in 
front  of  the  center,  so  as  to  be  under  the  seat  of  the  rider, 
and  maintain  such  equilibrium  as  will  prevent  one  part  of 
the  saddle  pressing  more  than  another  on  the  horse's 
back. 

Fourth.  T/ie  pack  should  be  reduced  to  the  loivest  limit  con- 
sistent with  efficient  service,  and  be  so  adjusted  as  to  preserve 
as  far  as  possible  the  equilibrium  of  horse  and  rider,  and 
to  prevent  one  part  of  the  back  from  being  saved  up  at 
the  expense  of  other  parts. 

Fifth.  The  center  of  the  saddle  should  be  placed  on 
the  back  over  the  center  of  motion  of  the  horse. 


CHAPTER 


CAVALRY  SADDLES  AND  PACKS. 


Designed  to  Carry  Heavy  Loads. —  Weights  of  Saddles  and  Packs. —  Disad- 
vantages of  Heavy  and  Bulky  Packs. — American  Cavalry:  The  Saddle; 
Field  Equipment;  Pack;  Field  Uniforms. —  British  Cavalry:  Service 
Orders;  Saddle;  Field  Equipment;  Pack;  Remarks.— German  Cavalry: 
Arms;  The  Saddle;  Pack;  Remarks.— Russian  Cavalry:  Arms;  Saddle; 
Pack. —  Belgian  Cavalry:  Arms;  Saddle  Equipments;  Pack.— Austrian 
Cavalry:  The  Saddle;  Pack.— Observations. 


Cavalry  saddles  are  all  designed  with  reference  to 
carrying  heavy  weights,  for  no  nation  has  as  yet  discovered 
any  method  of  sending  cavalry  out  on  extended  operations 
without  requiring  individual  troopers  to  pack  a  large 
amount  of  necessary  equipment  and  personal  kit. 

The  weight  of  saddles  and  packs  varies  in  different 
armies  slightly,  but  is  large  in  all  regular  cavalry  unac- 
companied by  extensive  baggage  trains,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  accompanying  tables  of  weights  of  equipments  and 
kits. 

The  serious  disadvantages  of  heavy  and  cumbersome 
packs  is  fully  recognized  by  the  authorities  in  every  army, 
and  the  problem  of  devising  means  whereby  the  weight 
may  be  reduced  without  decreasing  the  efficiency  of  the 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  185 

trooper,  is  one  always  open  for  consideration  and  ex- 
periment. 

Efforts  to  reduce  the  weights  of  saddles  and  packs  have 
not  always  resulted  favorably  to  efficiency.  There  are 
certain  things  necessary  to  enable  the  troopqr  to  keep  him- 
self and  his  horse  in  serviceable  condition,  and  the  only 
possible  method  of  reduction  in  some  of  these  is  by  substi- 
tution of  lighter  material  where  practicable. 

However,  some  things  which  are  very  necessary  for  one 
kind  of  field  service  are  not  only  not  required  on  other 
service,  but  may  then  be  an  absolute  detriment  to  efficiency. 

There  are  two  opposite  extremes  to  be  avoided  in  ex- 
perimenting with  equipments  as  with  anything  else,  and 
these  are  fulsome  praise  for  every  innovation  on  the  one 
hand,  or  uniform  condemnation  of  every  proposed  change 
on  the  other.  A  fair,  honest  trial  under  service  conditions 
is  justly  due  every  modern  improvement  which  does  not 
contain  elementary  principles  of  construction  already 
condemned. 

As  horses  get  used  to  almost  any  kind  of  a  bit,  so 
troopers  grow  accustomed  to  monstrosities  in  equipments, 
and  cease  to  complain.  There  is  no  better  illustration  of 
this  than  a  recruit's  struggles  during  his  first  year  of  ser- 
vice to  hang  his  carbine  around  his  neck  on  the  sling-belt, 
regulation  fashion,  while  he  lifts  his  leg  over  the  bulky 
can  tie  pack. 

In  the  American  service  there  are  only  ten  regiments 
of  cavalry,  all  armed  with  carbine,  saber  and  pistol,  and 


1 86  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

equipped  in  the  same  manner.  There  is  no  distinction  as 
to  heavy  and  light  cavalry,  and  the  horses  are  purchased 
as  nearly  as  possible  of  an  average  size.  For  the  year  1 893 
the  average  weight  of  horses  in  service  in  the  ten  regi- 
ments was  1,052  pounds. 

The  troopers  are  enlisted  only  up  to  a  weight  of  165 
pounds,  and  he  must  be  a  particularly  good  man  at  that 
weight  or  he  will  not  be  accepted.  Men  whose  weight 
runs  from  130  to  150  pounds  are  by  far  the  best  adapted 
for  the  requirements  of  American  cavalry,  the  traditions 
of  the  service  demanding  a  degree  of  activity  in  dismount- 
ing to  fight  on  foot,  in  skirmishing,  and  in  remounting 
quickly,  which  is  incompatible  with  heaviness. 

In  the  American  service  the  cavalry,  when  turned  out 
in  full  dress,  uses  the  bridle  without  a  halter,  the  saddle 
without  any  pack,  and  carry  only  the  saber,  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  saddle. 

For  purposes  of  drill  and  instruction  the  undress  uni- 
form, with  forage  cap  or  campaign  hat,  is  worn,  with  such 
arms  as  may  be  ordered  carried.  These,  however,  are 
merely  garrison  functions,  which  are  but  preparatory  for 
the  real  work  of  soldiers,  and,  therefore,  the  field  equip- 
ment only  will  be  considered. 

Service  against  Indians  has  circumscribed  the  selection 
of  all  equipments  to  such  limits  as  promised  success  in  that 
field  of  action  to  which  the  savages  confined  the  bulk  of 
the  army  to  within  a  few  years. 

At  the  present  time  it  is  only  probable  that  the  cavalry 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  l8/ 

will  be  called  upon  in  isolated  outbreaks,  and  a  comparison 
of  the  American  equipments  with  others  may  be  candidly 
made  with  a  view  to  determine  whether  the  details  of  ser- 
vice in  civilized  war  demand  any  change. 

It  is  presumed  that  in  the  excitement  attendant  upon 
an  outbreak  of  war,  ample  provision  would  be  made  for 
continuing  the  same  careful  inspection  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  saddles  and  other  parts  of  the  equipment  that  takes 
place  in  peace,  and  thus  give  evidence  that  the  expensive 
lessons  of  the  early  days  of  the  Civil  War  have  not  been 
forgotten. 

The  details  insisted  upon  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
saddles  relate  not  only  to  perfection  of  shape  and  size,  but 
also  to  the  quality  of  all  materials  which  is,  and  always 
should  be,  of  the  very  best  obtainable.  The  construction 
will  be  explained  in  full,  because  the  present  saddle,  both 
as  to  shape  and  material,  is  the  result  of  long  continued 
experiments,  based  on  actual  service  experience  from 
British  America  to  Mexico. 

In  order  to  understand  the  construction  of  the  saddle 
it  is  necessary  to  learn  the  nomenclature  of  the  various 
parts  as  understood  in  the  United  States.  (Fig.  33.) 


i88 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


^ 


^ 


B.  Pommel. 

C.  Cantle.  safe. 

L.  Side  bar.  M.  Stirrup  strap. 

H.  Front  quarter  strap.  N.  Stirrup  tread. 

H'.  Rear  quarter  strap.  C".  Stirrup  hood. 

I.  Quarter  strap  ring.  Q.  Saddle-bag  stud. 

X.  Stirrup  loop.  G.  Coat  Straps. 


J.       Quarter  strap  ring     AA'.  Rings. 

K.       Cincha  strap. 
V.      Cincha. 
V'.     Cincha  rings. 
O.       Cincha  ring  safe. 
P.       Carbine  boot. 


SS'.  Carbine  boot  straps. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  189 

The  saddle-bags  used  with  this  saddle  consist  of  two 
leather  pouches  connected  together  by  a  leather  seat. 
B  is  the  off  side  pouch,  C  the  flap,  and  EEE,  the  straps 
for  securing  the  flap. 

In  foreign  armies  generally  the  carbine  boot  is  called 
the  bucket,  and  the  side  bars  are  often  referred  to  as  side- 
boards. 

The  saddle-tree  (Fig.  34)  is  made  of  wood,  the  pommel 
a  and  cantle  b  being  of  beech,  each  made  of  two  pieces 
framed  together  at  the  top  and  glued.  The  two  side  bars 
c  of  poplar  are  each  made  of  two  pieces,  and  glued  together; 
they  are  then  glued  to  the  pommel  and  cantle,  and  secured 
with  eight  two  and  one-half  inch  No.  12  screws.  Holes 
are  bored  through  the  side  bars  along  the  junction  of  the 
pommel  and  cantle,  front  and  rear,  and  the  side  bars  are 
grooved  underneath  in  line  with  the  holes  for  fastening  on 
the  rawhide  cover.  The  pommel  has  one  mortise,  and  the 
cantle  three,  for  coat  straps. 

An  iron  pommel  arc  d,  with  two  holes  on  top,  is  fas- 
tened to  the  side  bars  with  four  rivets;  an  iron  pommel 
plate  of  semi-circular  shape  is  fastened  to  the  front  of 
the  pommel  with  five  rivets;  an  iron  cantle  arc  /,  with 
three  holes  on  top,  is  fastened  to  the  side  bars  with  four 
rivets;  an  iron  cantle  plate  g  is  fastened  to  the  front  of 
the  cantle  with  four  rivets.  Arcs  and  plates  are  one-tenth 
of  an  inch  thick,  and  let  in  flush  with  the  wood;  rivets  are 
one  and  one-fourth  inches  No.  8. 

Two  stirrup  strap  hooks  k,  made   of  one-fourth  inch 


1 9o 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


SIDE        ELEVATION 


wrought  iron,  with  the  lower  edges  inclined  from  the  hori- 
zontal upward  and 
to   the    front,    are 
+\---   - -I +< "p-  4/\ ••-  ~*.-6    made    to    swing 

,-A— I  -•  -j —  _.  j | ~/.T~  ~~  "' 

'r'J^T.    _~_J.Z /<'4=f^r--S*    loosely    in     iron 

»a&^=jm        straps  z.  which  are 

let  in  and  fastened 
to  the  side  bars  with 
three  rivets. 

The  tree  is 
smooth,  and  paint- 
ed with  white  lead 
before  the  rawhide 
cover  is  put  on  to 
strengthen  it  (Fig. 
35).  The  top  cov- 
ering is  secured  in 
place  with  rawhide 
thongs  passing 
through  holes  •  in 
front  and  rear  of 
the  pommel  and 
cantle,  and  over  the 
covering.  The  top 
and  bottom  covers 
are  then  sewed  to- 
gether with  light 
thongs  of  the  same 


r-r-'T — r 


- 34- 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  19 1 

material.  (Fig.  36.)  The  tree  is  then  covered  with  black 
collar  leather,  six  to  seven  ounces  per  square  foot,  and  the 
seams  around  the  pommel  and  cantle  are  reenforced  with 
welts  of  leather,  and  those  on  the  side  bars  are  placed  so 
as  not  to  chafe  the  horse  or  rider.  Four  wrought  iron 
-saddle  nails,  one  inch  long,  with  half  heads  japanned,  are 


Fig.  35- 

placed  in  the  side  bars  at  the  points  of  junction  with  pom- 
mel and  cantle.  There  are  no  leather  skirts  to  the  saddle. 
Two  one  and  one-fourth  inch  brass  rings  A  (Fig.  33) 
are  attached  in  the  front  ends  of  the  side  bars  by  one  and 
five-eighths  inch  staples  driven  through  and  clinched.  A 
brass  shield  B,  with  the  size  of  the  seat  stamped  on  it,  is 
fastened  on  the  pommel  with  three  three-quarter  inch  No. 
2  screw  pins  above  the  mortise,  for  the  coat  strap.  Six 
brass  guard  plates  or  ovals  C  are  fastened  on  the  cantle, 
three  on  each  side  over  the  mortises,  for  the  coat  straps, 
and  one  in  front  of  the  pommel,  each  with  two  three-quarter 


I92 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


inch  No.  2  screw  pins.  Four  foot  staples  D  one-fourth  inch 
by  thirteen-sixteenths  of  an  inch,  for  coat  straps,  are  placed 
two  on  the  front  of  the  pommel  and  two  carrying  one  and 
one-fourth  inch  brass  rings  on  the  rear  of  the  cantle  under 
the  ovals,  each  staple  being  fastened  with  two  seven-eighths 
No.  6  screws.  Two  foot  staples  seven-sixteenths  of  an  inch 
by  three-fourths  of  an  inch,  are  fastened  to  the  side  bars 


Fig.  36. 

through  the  rear  girth  straps  with  two  seven- eighths  inch 
No.  6  screws,  for  attaching  the  saddle-bags.  The  saddle- 
bag stud  is  fastened  to  the  rear  of  the  girth  strap  with  a 
three-eighths  inch  No.  10  rivet,  and  to  the  saddle  through 
the  girth  strap  and  cantle  arc  with  a  one  inch  No.  8  oval- 
head  rivet. 

The  service  saddles  are  issued  in  three  sizes:  Nos.  i,  2 
and  3,  the  length  of  the  seat  being  respectively  eleven, 
eleven  and  one-half  and  twelve  inches.  The  length  of  the 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  193 

bars  correspond  with  the  length  of  seat,  but  all  the  other 
dimensions  are  the  same  for  all  trees.  The  measure  is 
taken  as  shown  in  Fig.  34. 

To  form  a  cincha  attachment,  two  quarter  straps  H  and 
H1 ',  made  of  harness  leather,  are  passed  over  the  pommel 
and  cantle  arcs,  to  which  they  are  riveted.  The  ends  of 
the  front  and  rear  straps  are  brought  together  on  each  side 
and  sewed  into  wrought  iron  rings  /  two  and  one-half 
inches  in  diameter.  Safes  of  leather/  are  fastened  under 
the  rings  to  prevent  sores  from  tight  girthing.  Two  cincha 
straps  K  are  sewed  in  these  rings,  one  for  each  side. 

The  cincha  V  is  made  of  twenty-four  strands  of  hair 
rope  knotted  at  the  ends  into  four-inch  iron  rings  V  with 
leather  safes  O  underneath.  The  cincha  is  seven  inches 
wide  at  the  center.  The  knots  are  covered  with  leather 
and  sewed  on  to  the  safes. 

The  stirrups  N  are  of  hard  wood,  five  and  one-half 
inches  wide  and  four  and  one-half  inches  deep,  with  a 
hood  O1  of  thick  harness  leather  riveted  on.  Stirrup  straps 
M,  without  sweat  leathers,  are  used  with  the  stirrup. 

The  six  coat  straps  G  are  passed  through  the  mortises 
and  foot  staples.  Leather  stops  are  riveted  on  to  limit  the 
play  of  the  straps. 

The  carbine  boot  P  is  hung  over  the  saddle-bag  stud 
by  a  strap  T,  and  also  secured  by  two  straps  5  and  ST. 

The  saber  is  attached  at  U  to  a  small  strap  hung  from 
the  ring  A,  and  to  another  passed  through  /. 


194  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

The  American  cavalry  saddle  compares  most  favorably 
with  those  in  use  by  the  more  prominent  military  nations 
as  regards  strength,  durability,  packing  capacity,  and  com- 
fort for  man  and  horse.  It  has  been  in  use  for  more  than 
thirty  years,  and  has  stood  the  severest  tests  of  active  field 
use  that  the  varied  climate  and  service  of  the  country 
demanded. 

It  must  be  placed  to  the  credit  of  this  saddle  that  when 
properly  fitted  and  adjusted  fewer  sore  backs  occur  than 
with  any  other  saddle  ever  issued,  and  when  through  acci- 
dent or  carelessness  a  back  is  injured,  it  may  be  cured 
while  continuing  the  horse  in  service  by  removing  or 
rearranging  the  pack  and  so  folding  the  blanket  as  to 
guard  the  bruised  or  wounded  part.  The  under  surface 
of  the  saddle  being  perfectly  smooth,  necessitates  watch- 
fulness to  prevent  the  saddle  blanket  from  slipping,  and 
hence  it  is  customary  on  the  march  to  examine  blankets  at 
every  halt. 

t  The  American  saddle  now  in  use  is  of  the  same  general 
form  as  that  used  during  the  Civil  War,  but  the  saddle  was 
then  issued  with  only  the  rawhide  cover,  which  was  seri- 
ously affected  by  the  alternate  wetting  and  drying  to  which 
it  was  constantly  exposed.  The  effect  of  this  was  to  tear 
out  the  seams,  the  result  being  that  the  rawhide  curled  up 
on  the  edges,  and  compelled  the  troopers  to  cut  off  the 
covers  to  prevent  chafing  of  the  inner  thighs. 

The  leather  covered  saddle,  the  details  of  which  have 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  1 95 

already  been  described,  has  made  a  good  record  for  itself, 
if  frontier  marches  of  from  500  to  1,500  miles,  interspersed 
with  innumerable  short  marches  of  a  few  days'  duration, 
are  of  any  value  in  determining  the  adaptability  of  horse 
equipments  for  service. 

In  much  of  the  wild  country  where  the  cavalry  has 
been  on  duty  the  troopers  were  required  to  carry  all  they 
needed  for  a  scout  of  thirty  or  sixty  days,  except  rations, 
on  their  horses.  The  weight  of  the  packs  varied  some- 
what on  different  campaigns,  according  to  the  amount  of 
ammunition,  horseshoes,  etc.,  ordered  carried  on  the  horse. 
The  pack  mules  were  usually  reserved  to  carry  rations. 

The  weight  of  the  arms  and  equipments  is  practically 
the  same  for  all  troopers,  no  matter  what  their  own  weight 
may  be,  therefore  the  strong  horses  are  selected  for  the 
heavy  men,  in  order  that  all  the  animals  may  have  the 
same  chance  of  pulling  through  the  fatigues  incident  to 
field  service. 

The  weight  carried  by  the  horse  depends  upon  the 
character  of  the  campaigning.  The  summer  work  is  done 
frequently  with  a  much  reduced  load,  but  in  the  severe 
weather  of  the  northern  plains  in  midwinter  both  weight 
and  bulk  are  much  increased.  The  following  table  will 
show  the  articles  carried  ordinarily  on  the  trooper's  horse: 


196  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

WEIGHTS    OF    ARMS,    EQUIPMENTS    AND    CLOTHING    OF    U.  S.  CAVALRY. 

Saddle  with  hair  cincha,  stirrups,  stirrup  straps,  saber  straps 

and  coat  straps i?-3 

Saddle  bags 4-2 

Carbine  boot i.i 

Bridle  and  bit,  mod.  '92 2.6 

Halter  and  strap 2.6 

Nose  bag 1.05 

(picket  pin,  1.5  Ibs. ) 

Lariat  and  picket  pm,^f    .  3.3 
[lariat,            1.8      '   j 

Canteen  and  strap,  empty i.i 

Meat  can .95 

Knife,  fork  and  spoon .38 

Cup .525 

Surcingle       .75 

Horse  brush     .625 

Currycomb .65 

Watering  bridle i.r 

Saddle  blanket 4.3 

Spurs  and  straps,  pairs .35 

Pistol  holster      .5 

Cartridge  belt .90 

Side  lines 1.72 

Carbine    ,  .  7.95 

Pistol,  cal.  38            2.06 

Saber  and  scabbard 3.75 

Saber  knot .2 

Carbine  sling  and  swivel .80 

Saber  belt  and  plate  and  attachment .90 

Overcoat  and  cape 6.25 

Blouse 2.00 

Trousers 2.37 

Blue  overshift,  woolen 1.12 

Undershirt,  woolen 1.06 

Drawers .87 

Socks,  woolen,  pair .25 

Campaign  hat .31 

Gauntlets,  leather .43 

Blanket,  woolen 5.00 

Shelter  tent,  half 2.00 

Boots 5.00 

Cavalry  leggins,  warm  climate .81 

Two  horseshoes,  fore  and  hind   .  1.5 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  197 

Shoes,  warm  climate 2.06     Ibs. 

Toilet  articles  and  gun  cleaning  materials 

Special  issue  for  winter  campaigns  : 

Canvas  overcoat,  blanket  lined 10.5 

Fur  cap ' 31 

Fur  gauntlets .56       " 

Felt  or  wool  oversocks P.OO 

Arctic  overshoes 3.57 

Horse  cover  and  surcingle 6.00 

Toe  calks  and  ice  nails  issued  in  winter. 


Fig.  37- 


Grain  sacks  are  not  usually  carried  on  frontier  service, 
but  a  very  serviceable  canvas  bag  is  issued  for  this  purpose 
when  required.  The  weight  of  the  average  kit  and  equip- 
ments complete  is  about  ninety  pounds. 


198 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


The  total  weight  carried  by  the  horse  may  be,  and  fre- 
quently is,  increased  by  the  addition  of  rations   for  the 


PL  A  TE  XI. 


trooper  and  grain  for  the  horse.  It  can  be  easily  seen  that 
the  manner  in  which  this  load  is  secured  is  of  the  greatest 
importance. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  199 

Fig.  37  shows  the  saddle  with  saddle-bags  and  carbine 
boot  attached.  The  saddle-bags  are  shown  so  that  the 
stud  which  holds  them  in  place  over  the  arc  may  be  seen. 
The  foot  staples  project  through  on  each  side,  and  a  keeper 
of  leather  is  inserted  in  each  to  hold  the  leather  piece  con- 
necting the  two  bags  down  on  to  the  bars  of  the  saddle. 
The  overcoat  and  cape  are  tightly  rolled,  preparatory  to 
being  strapped  on  with  the  three  pommel  straps.  The 
bed  blanket  and  a  suit  of  underclothes  are  tightly  -rolled 
inside  of  the  shelter  tent  and  the  nose  bag  slipped  over  one 
end,  the  head  strap  being  buckled  over  the  other;  this  con- 
stitutes the  cantle  pack.  When  side  lines  are  carried  they 
are  laid  on  top  of  this  pack,  the  whole  being  secured  to  the 
saddle  by  three  cantle  straps.  The  lariat  and  picket  pin, 
canteen,  meat  can,  tin  cup,  and  bridle  with  link  strap  and 
snap,  are  also  shown. 

Plate  XI  shows  the  trooper  mounted  and  equipped  for 
ordinary  field  service.  The  overcoat  is  attached  to  the 
pommel,  and  the  blanket  roll  to  the  cantle,  the  leather  end 
of  the  nose  bag  showing  in  the  plate.  The  saber  is  attached 
by  two  straps,  one  in  the  brass  ring  in  the  forward  part  of 
the  bars,  and  the  other  passing  through  the  cincha  ring. 
The  end  of  the  halter  strap  is  tied  in  the  same  ring  on  the 
bars  that  holds  the  saber  strap.  The  rolled  lariat  is  hung 
to  the  cantle  ring  by  the  snap,  which  is  used  to  attach  it  to 
the  halter  ring  when  the  horse  is  picketed,  or  by  a  small 
strap  specially  issued  for  the  purpose.  The  link  strap  is 
shown  running  from  the  lower  ring  of  the  bit  to  the  buckle 


2OO 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


in  the  cheek  piece  of  the  bridle.  This  is  used  to  link  the 
horse  to  the  halter  ring  of  the  next  horse  on  his  left  when 
dismounting  to  fight  on  foot.  (Plate  XII.) 


PLATE  XII. 


Plate  XIII  sh6ws  the  same  trooper  on  the  other  side. 
The  carbine  is  carried  in  the  boot,  which  does  not  cover 
the  muzzle.  When  crossing  streams  it  is  withdrawn  from 
the  boot,  and  carried  at  an  advance  with  the  butt  resting 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


201 


on  the  thigh.     The  long  carbine  boot,  made  to  entirely 
cover  the  gun,  is  heavy,  and  retains  moisture  when  much 

PLATE   XII i. 


rain  falls,  but  it  protects  the  barrel  and  sights  better  than 
the  short  boot.     The  canteen,  with  its  strap  passed  through 


2O2 


)RSHS,    SADDLES    AND    15KIDLES. 


PLATE 


the  handle  of  the  tin  cup,  is  attached  by  a  snap  to  the  off 
cantle  ring-.     Cartridges  and  the  pistol  are  carried  on  the 

belt  around  the  trooper's 
waist.  Extra  ammunition, 
horseshoes  and  nails,  ra- 
tions, watering  bridle,  cur- 
rycomb and  horse  brush  are 
carried  in  the  saddle-bags. 
The  carbine  is  attached 
to  the  swivel  of  the  sling- 
belt,  and  passed  over  the 
right  shoulder  and  let  fall 
behind  the  back  in  mount- 
ing and  dismounting. 

The  saber  remains  at- 
tached to  the  saddle,  but 
the  carbine  and  pistol  are 
always  carried  when  dis- 
mounting to  fight. 

The  equipment  was  de- 
vised for  frontier  service, 
and  has  well  served  its 
purpose.  The  side  lines 
and  lariat  with  iron  picket 
pins  might  be  discarded  in 
civilized  warfare,  although  use  for  lariats  is  constantly 
found  for  temporary  ground  picket  lines,  crossing  streams, 
tying  loads  on  wagons,  and  various  other  purposes. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


203 


PLATE  XV. 


The  ends  of  the  pommel  and  cantle  packs  are  always 
bent  downward,  the  heavy  articles  put  in  the  bottom  of 
the  saddle-bags,  and  the 
carbine  and  saber  hung- 

o 

well  down  on  the  sides  of 
the  horse.  The  result  of 
this  combination  is  to  keep 
the  horse's  center  of  gravity 
nearly  as  low  as  in  nature, 
so  that  the  saddle  seldom 
has  any  tendency  to  turn, 
as  would  be  the  case  when 
everything  is  piled  upon 
the  horse's  back. 

Plate  XIV  shows  the 
dismounted  trooper  uni- 
formed in  a  dark  blue 
flannel  shirt,  trousers  and 
canvas  leggins,  for  service 
on  the  Mexican  border  and 
other  warm  stations. 

Plate  XV  shows  the 
dismounted  trooper  uni- 
formed in  winter  costume 
for  service  on  the  northern 
plains,  where  extremely  cold  weather  prevails.  The  over- 
coat is  of  heavy  canvas,  with  blanket  lining;  fur  cap  and 
gauntlets,  heavy  wool  or  felt  oversocks  or  leggins,  and 


204 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


wool-lined  overshoes  complete  the   costume.     On  service 
requiring  this   dress  the   horses  are   also   provided   with 


PLATE    XVI. 


blanket-lined  canvas  covers.  It  was  only  with  such  pro- 
tection that  American  troops  were  enabled  to  inaugurate 
and  carry  to  a  successful  termination  a  series  of  winter 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  . 

campaigns  against   Indians,   unparalleled  in  severity  and 
unexcelled  in  successful  results. 

Plate  XVI  shows  the  Whitman  saddle  and  bridle,  which 
was  recommended  some  years  ago  by  a  board  of  officers  for 
adoption  in  the  American  service.  This  saddle  is  intended 
for  the  use  of  officers,  those  for  the  troopers  being  equipped 
with  packing  straps.  One  model  is  provided  with  a  large 
horn  pommel  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the  carbine  slung 
across  the  saddle.  Many  of  the  Whitman  saddles  are  used 
by  officers,  but  the  cavalry  saddle  previously  described  is 
the  only  one  used  by  the  American  trooper. 

THE    BRITISH    CAVALRY. 

The  British  cavalry  is  composed  of  dragoon  guards, 
dragoons,  hussars  and  lancers.  All  are  armed  with  the 
carbine  and  saber,  and  the  lancers,  in  addition,  carry  the 
lance.  The  equipment  and  accessories  composing  the  pack 
vary  according  to  the  service,  which  for  this  body  of  troops 
includes  a  wide  range,  because  of  the  extent  of  the  colonial 
system. 

The  recognized  orders  include  those  for  "review  and 
field  day,"  "drill,"  "service  marching,"  " home  marching," 
and  "light  service."  The  "service"  and  "light  service" 
marching  orders  are  the  only  ones  which  will  be  discussed 
in  detail. 

The  British  cavalry  saddle  (Fig.  38  and  Fig.  39)  is 
made  with  long  wooden  side  bars  of  beech,  and  narrowed 


206 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


towards  the  rear  ends,  where  they  are  covered  with  leather 
to  prevent  chipping.  The  front  arch  is  of  channeled  steel, 
having  slots  for  the  wallet  straps;  the  rear  arch  is  of 
beveled  steel,  with  curved  spoon  cantle,  both  arches  being 


PIS-  38. 

riveted  on  to  the  side  bars.  The  links  or  plates  for  attach- 
ing the  stirrup  leathers  are  placed  on  the  side  bars  about 
three  inches  from  the  front  arch. 

The  leather  seat  is  laced  to  the  arches,  and  supported 
iinderneath  by  broad  webbing,  crossed.  Leather  flaps,  or 
saddle  skirts,  are  secured  to  the  side  bars  with  screws. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


207 


jt). 


208  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

The  girth  is  made  of  leather,  as  is  also  the  carbine  boot, 
which  is  hung  on  the  off  side  and  attached  to  the  girth  by 
a  strong  piece  of  leather.  Fair  leather  is  used  for  both 
saddle  and  bridle. 

The  substitution  of  the  metal  for  the  wooden  arch  of 
the  Nolan  saddle,  in  use  some  years  ago,  has  not  been 
entirely  satisfactory  to  the  British  cavalry,  and  the  cost  of 
the  saddles  has  been  somewhat  increased.  It  is  believed 
that  with  broader  side  bars,  and  pommel  and  cantle  made 
of  well  seasoned  beech,  secured  with  light  metal  plates,  as 
in  the  American  tree,  the  British  cavalry  would  have  a 
more  serviceable  saddle  for  carrying  the  packs  necessary 
in  colonial  service. 

The  following  table  shows  the  articles  carried  by  the 
dragoon  guards  and  dragoons  on  "service  marching  order." 
The  articles  carried  by  the  hussars  and  lancers  are  practi- 
cally the  same : 

Lbs.  Ozs. 

Flannel  shirt i  i 

Drawers i  o^ 

Socks 5 

Braces 4^ 

Head  dress i 

Tunic  (or  frock) 3 

Pantaloons 2 

Flannel  belt 6 

Boots,  knee 4  6 

Spurs,  jack 15 

Gauntlets 

Field  dressing 2 

Sword  and  scabbard 4          6 

Sword  belt i  3 

Pouch  belt  .  ii 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  2O(}> 

Lbs.  Ozs. 

Haversack,  full i  8 

Pocket  knife,  etc. 6 

Pouches,  ( 2 ) 1 1  y2 

Ammunition,  30  rounds 3  o 

Carb       7  9>£ 

Saddle  and  bridle,  complete 26  5 

Breastplate i  3 

Wallets,  packed 9 

One  pair  ankle  boots 3  13 

Shoe  case,  fitted 2  3 

Frog  for  carrying  sword 

Numnah 2  5 

Blanket 4  6 

Hoof  picker 2 

Nose  bag,  full .  .  .  ; 8  3 

Head-rope 10 

Built-up-rope i 

Peg 3 

Carbine  bucket ••....  2  2 

Water  bottle,  empty i  o 

Cloak 7  13 

Forage  cap,  active  service .  4 

One  pair  spare  pantaloon*  ,| 
One  pair  putties,  j 

Waterproof  sheet 2  5 

Cape 2  o 

Forage  net 2  2j 

Corn  sack i  13 

Mess  tin  and  ration i  9 

121 


The  articles  carried  on  light  service  order  are  the  same 
as  the  foregoing,  omitting  the  following : 

Lbs.  Ozs. 

Forage  cap,  active  service 4^ 

One  pair  ankle  boots 3  13 

One  pair  spare  laces 2 

One  pair  drawers i  oj£- 

One  flannel  shirt  .  i  i 


210  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

Lbs.  Ozs. 

Hold-all  (except  spoon) g 

Housewife 3^ 

One  pair  spare  pantaloons 2  8 

One  pair  putties 8 

Corn  sack 113 


Service  M.  O. 121 

Less ii         15 

no  o 

PLATE   XVII. 


The  manner  of  packing  the  kit  and  carrying  the  arms 
is  shown  in  the  plates.  Plate  XVII  shows  the  carbine  in 
the  biicket  suspended  from  the  right  side  of  the  cantle  and 


HOKSKS,    SADDLES    AND    15RIDI.ES.  211 

attached  to  the  girth  by  a  stiffened  leather  pad.  Wallets 
are  attached  to  the  pommel,  over  which  is  strapped  the 
cloak  and  a  pair  of  ankle  boots,  one  on  each  side.  In  the 
wallets  are  carried  the  horse  brush,  currycomb,  drawers, 
shirts,  socks,  pipe  clay,  brushes,  blacking,  hold-all,  etc. 


PLATE  XVI II. 


The  sheep  skin  in  rear  contains  the  stable  jacket,  trou- 
sers, gloves  and  picketing  gear.  The  water  bottle  hangs 
under  the  right  end  of  the  sheep  skin. 

The  same  animal  and  kit  are  shown  in  Plate  XVIII,  on 
the  reverse  side.  The  method  of  attaching  the  saber  is  of 


PLATE   XIX. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  213 

more  interest  than  anything  else  in  this  view.  It  is  at- 
tached opposite  the  carbine,  undoubtedly  with  a  view  to 
balancing  it,  which  is  an  excellent  plan,  provided  that  the 
saber  can  be  quickly  drawn,  and  that  in  marching  it  does 
not  injure  the  leg. 

A  front  view  is  shown  in  Plate  XIX  and  a  rear  view  in 
Plate  XX.  The  pack  appears  to  be  snugly  and  tightly 
adjusted  in  all  the  views  of  it,  and  in  the  new  "  light  ser- 
vice order"  it  is  reduced  to  a  very  moderate  limit. 

The  double-reined  bridle  for  bit  and  bridoon  is  used, 
and  a  pipe-clayed  halter  rope  takes  the  place  of  a  leather 
strap. 

Some  things  are  carried  by  the  trooper  which  would 
only  be  taken  in  America  when  pack  mules  or  wagons 
are  available. 

There  are  too  many  "marching  orders"  in  the  British 
cavalry,  judged  from  an  American  standpoint,  but  on  the 
whole- there  is  nothing  for  them  to  learn  from  Continental 
nations  as  to  packing  and  arms. 

British  officers  have  had  but  little  opportunity  to  test 
the  value  of  dismounted  fire  action  of  cavalry  armed  with 
repeating  carbines,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  when  such 
experience  does  come  to  them,  they  will  recognize  as 
clearly  as  Americans,  that  horsemen  do  not  cease  to  be 
cavalry  because  they  can  dismount  and  fight  on  foot.  On 
the  contrary,  they  will  find  their  men  more  willing  to  push 
forward,  knowing  they  cannot  be  stopped  by  ordinary 


rLATE   -V.V. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  215 

home  guards,  raw  levies,  or  any  but  as  good  troops  as 
themselves  in  equal  or  greater  numbers. 

The  target  and  skirmish  records  in  the  American  ser- 
vice show  that  the  cavalrymen  shoot  equally  as  well  as 
the  infantrymen,  and  they  have  never  failed  to  charge 
mounted  when  circumstances  demanded  it. 

The  work  of  the  British  cavalry  on  duty  in  the  colonies 
is  much  like  that  of  the  American  cavalry  on  the  frontier, 
and  their  equipment  and  kit  is  carried  in  a  somewhat  sim- 
ilar way.  The  carbine  in  the  American  service  is  never 
allowed  to  remain  on  the  horse  without  the  trooper.  Be- 
fore dismounting  all  carbines  are  attached  to  the  swivels  of 
the  sling-belt  and  hung  over  the  back.  In  this  way  a  com- 
mand is  not  apt  to  be  disconcerted  by  a  sudden  attack,  as 
would  be  the  case  if  the  carbines  were  on  the  horses  after 
the  men  had  dismounted. 

From  the  kit  carried  it  appears  that  the  horses  are 
attached  to  the  picket  line  in  front  and  to  the  ground  in 
rear  by  heel  ropes.  Whether  this  is  better  than  the 
American  plan  is  not  known,  but  in  either  case  constant 
watchfulness  is  necessary  to  prevent  horses  from  burning 
themselves  below  the  fetlocks. 

It  takes  a  long  time  for  most  horses  to  learn  how  to 
stand  quietly  at  a  ground  picket  rope,  or  when  grazing 
attached  to  a  lariat.  By  winding  a  rope  about  the  heel  a 
fine  horse  may  in  a  few  minutes  reduce  himself  to  an 
utterly  unserviceable  condition,  requiring  weeks  for  recu- 
peration. Such  heel  galls  are  almost  invariably  followed 


2l6  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

by  a  rough,  unsightly  cicatrix.  The  difficulties  arising 
from  such  accidents  in  the  field,  in  addition  to  the  wider 
range  for  grazing,  induced  American  officers  many  years 
ago  to  teach  all  cavalry  horses  to  herd  whenever  the 
proximity  of  the  enemy  did  not  prevent  it. 

There  is  no  such  article  in  the  American  equipment  as 
a  forage  net,  the  shelter  tent  being  usually  called  into  use 
whenever  it  is  necessary  to  pack  hay. '  There  are  many 
occasions  in  war  when  forage  nets,  weighing  but  a  few 
ounces,  would  be  of  great  value. 


THE    GERMAN    CAVALRY. 

The  German  cavalry  still  retains  the  distinctive  titles 
of  cuirassiers,  uhlans,  dragoons  and  hussars,  but  the  only 
difference  between  them  is  in  the  weight  of  men  and 
horses.  The  cuirass  is  only  worn  on  occasions  of  ceremony, 
and  will  not  be  used  in  the  next  war. 

In  heavy  cavalry,  cuirassiers  and  uhlans,  the  average 
weight  of  the  horses  is  1,083  pounds,  and  the  troopers  187 
pounds.  In  the  light  cavalry  the  horses  average  866 
pounds,  and  the  troopers  143  pounds. 

All  German  cavalry  regiments  are  armed  with  lance, 
saber  and  carbine.  The  pistol  is  carried  in  the  field  by 
officers,  first  and  vice  first  sergeants  and  trumpeters. 
There  is  some  variation  in  the  saber  issued  to  different 
regiments,  but  the  lance  is  the  same  for  all.  It  consists  of 
.a  hollow  steel  tube  with  a  four- edged  point  of  forged  steel 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  2  I/ 

and  a  shaft  of  cast  steel.  The  length  of  the  lance  is  ten 
feet  six  inches,  and  its  weight  is  4.36  pounds.  The  carbine 
is  the  same  in  all  regiments. 

Four  patterns  of  saddles  were  formerly  in  use,  but  at 
the  present  time  all  the  cavalry  is  equipped  with  the  army 
saddle,  model  of  1 890,  which  is  made  in  four  sizes  to  suit 
horses  of  different  conformation. 

This  saddle  consists  of  a  wooden  tree  with  wooden 
arches,  strengthened  by  iron  plates  and  supported  by  angle 
irons.  Between  the  arches  is  laced  a  leather  seat,  after 
the  method  in  use  in  the  old  Hungarian  saddle,  over 
which  is  the  felt  lined  saddle  cushion,  which  is  also  laced 
to  the  arches. 

To  the  bars  are  attached  panels  stuffed  with  wool,  and 
secured  by  pockets  laced  over  the  fans  or  ends  of  the  bar. 

The  girths  and  stirrup  leathers  are  attached  by  means 
of  D's  on  the  bars.  The  stirrups  are  made  of  steel. 

The  leather  saddle-flaps,  with  knee  pads  stuffed  with 
hair,  are  attached  to  the  arches  and  also  to  the  wallets, 
which  are  strapped  on  the  front  or  pommel  arch. 

The  shabraque  has  holes  cut  in  it  in  rear  to  let  the 
cantle  of  the  saddle  and  D's  fixed  on  the  bars  pass  through 
it;  also  in  front  on  the  off  side  to  let  the  carbine  muzzle 
pass  into  its  socket,  which  is  fixed  on  the  off  wallet.  A 
breast  strap  is  used.  All  the  horse  equipments  are  of  fair 
leather. 


218  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

The  saddle-blanket  is  of  white  wool,  and  folded  from 
nine  to  twelve  times. 

The  following  articles  constitute  the  dragoon  equip- 
ments for  field  service: 

Army  saddle 17.60  Ibs. 

Girth 1-45  " 

Surcingle 0.66  ' 

Breast  strap " 0.74 

Saddle-blanket,  white  wool 7.38  " 

Saddle-bags 4-84 

Carbine 6.83  " 

Carbine  boot  and  strap ' 1.98 

Saber 3.87  " 

Lance      4-36  " 

Grain  sack,  with  one-third  of  a  ration 5.53 

Stirrup  strap 0.99  ' 

Stirrups,  with  lance  socket 2.53 

Forage  line 1.02  " 

Cooking  vessel,  leather  case  and  strap 2.86 

Headstall,  halter  and  halter  rope 2.20  " 

Curb  bit  and  reins 1.54  " 

Snaffle  bit  and  reins 0.88  " 

The  following  articles  of  clothing  and  kit  are  carried: 

Overcoat,  Field  dressing,  Horse  brush, 
Tunic,  Sword  knot,  Tin  of  grease, 
Linen  stable  jacket,  Currycomb,  Haversack, 
Neck  cloth,  Three  brushes,  Spoon, 
Forage  cap,  Tin  of  pipe  clay,  Two  pairs  socks  or  foot 
Pantaloons,  Button  brass,  cloths, 
Two  pairs  drawers,  Pay  book,  Shoulder  belt  and  box, 
Two  shirts,  Mess  tin  and  case,  Hymn  book, 
Gloves,  Waist  belt,  Two  double  lance  buck- 
Riding  boots,  Three  bags,  with  rice,  ets,     • 
Wellington  boots,                    salt  and  coffee,  Fore  shoe, 
Spurs,  Shoe  case,  Hind  shoe, 
Helmet,  Sixteen  nails,  Sail  cloth  bucket. 
Linen  trousers,  Nose  bag, 
Mark  of  identity,  Carbine  sling, 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


2IQ 


The  weight  of  arms  and  saddle  equipments  is  57.36 
pounds,  and  the  clothing  and  other  articles  of  the  trooper's 
kit  will  average  more  than  forty  pounds.  The  total  weight 


Fig.  43. 

carried  by  the  horse,  exclusive  of  rider,  will  seldom  be  less 
than  one  hundred  pounds. 

Fig.  40  shows  the  saddle  and  bridle  removed  from  the 
horse.  The  method  of  attaching  the  carbine  indicates 
that  it  is  secured  in  place  before  the  trooper  mounts.  The 


PLA  TE  XXI. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  221 

wallets  are  carried  on  the  pommel,  and  the  overcoat  in 
rear  of  the  cantle. 

Plate  XXI  shows  a  trooper  of  the  First  Dragoons  of 
the  Guard.  The  saber  is  attached  to  the  saber  belt,  and 
the  cartridge  box  seen  behind  the  back  is  hung  from  the 
shoulder  belt,  and  contains  thirty  cartridges. 

The  left  wallet  has  a  small  pocket  in  the  front,  in  which 
are  carried  fifteen  cartridges.  The  horseshoes  are  .strapped 
on  the  outside  of  the  wallet.  The  white  end  of  the  grain 
sack  and  the  overcoat  are  seen  just  above  the  leather  case 
containing  the  cooking  vessel,  which  is  hung  from  the 
cantle  on  the  left  side. 

Plate  XXII  shows  the  same  trooper  on  the  right  side. 
The  lance  rests  in  the  boot  or  socket  attached  to  the 
stirrup.  The  grain  sack  and  overcoat  are  seen  as  from 
the  other  side.  The  leg  is  enclosed  between  the  carbine 
and  the  saddle  as  if  wedged  there.  The  whole  presents 
an  appearance  of  top-heaviness,  conducive  to  turning  over 
the  saddle,  and  interfering  with  the  stability  of  the  horse 
at  speed  over  rough  ground.  The  weight  upon  the  withers 
appears  to  be  greater  than  a  fair  proportion  of  the  total, 
which  would  interfere  with  locomotion,  and  cause  fistulous 
withers. 

It  is  apparent  at  a  glance  t*hat  it  would  be  impossible 
to  mount  any  but  perfectly  trained  and  steady  horses  with 
a  carbine  strapped  alongside  of  a  saddle  in  the  manner 
adopted  by  the  Germans.  In  time  of  peace  they  have  such 
horses,  for  none  are  bought  unless  thoroughly  broken  and 


222  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

gentle,  and  then  they  are  given  two  years  careful  training 
before  being  put  in  ranks.  They  become  accustomed  by 
constant  use  to  all  the  sights  and  sounds  incident  to  ser- 
vice, and  so  well  established  in  their  gaits  that  a  horse 
seldom  breaks  the  indicated  gait,  and  never  bolts,  even  in 
large  bodies  of  horsemen  moving  rapidly. 

The  method  of  attaching  the  carbine  is  not  suited  to 
untrained  horses,  such  as  would  be  sure  to  come  into  the 
ranks  in  large  numbers  in  a  prolonged  campaign,  or  a  brief 
one  involving  much  fighting. 

The  saber  should  be  attached  to  the  saddle,  so  that 
when  the  troopers  are  dismounted  to  fight  on  foot  no  time 
will  be  lost  in  looking  for  a  place  to  hang  it.  It  is  pre- 
sumed some  arrangement  has  been  made  for  securing  the 
lance  to  the  horse  when  the  trooper  dismounts,  for  it  is 
well  recognized  in  the  American  service  that  the  horse 
holders  must  follow  up  an  advancing  line,  or  take  the 
horses  back  to  cover  when  a  defensive  line  is  to  be  held. 

Much  care  is  devoted  to  this  training,  for  the  morale  of 
a  fighting  line  of  dismounted  cavalrymen  is  much  enhanced 
by  the  knowledge  that  their  comrades  wrill  find  cover  for 
their  horses  and  yet  have  them  on  hand  promptly  in  case 
there  is  need  for  them  to  secure  victory  by  a  rapid  advance, 
or  to  escape  capture  by  a  mounted  retreat. 

It  is  a  question  whether  the  German  equipment  does 
not  show  that  they  are  divided  as  to  the  lessons  of  the 
American  Civil  War,  and  that  they  have  attempted  to  sat- 
isfy both  the  admirers  of  the  lance  and  those  who  recognize 


PLA'lE  XX 11. 


«* 


224  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

that  fire  action  is  a  necessary  accompaniment  to  successful 
raiding  columns  of  cavalry.  The  result  may  not  be  disaster, 
but  it  will  fall  far  short  of  the  success  attained  by  cavalry 
commands  during  the  last  two  years  of  the  Civil  War  in 
the  United  States. 

It  would  not  be  practicable  in  America  to  campaign 
without  baggage  wagons  unless  some  blankets  or  shelter 
tents  are  carried  on  the  horses.  The  system  of  billeting 
may  do  away  with  this  necessity  in  Europe,  but  it  would 
never  work  in  America.* 

No  blanket,  shelter-tent  or  cover  appears  to  be  included 
in  the  German  cavalryman's  equipment.  This  makes  it 
absolutely  necessary  to  billet  the  men,  which  involves  scat- 
tering them  about  villages  in  a  way  which  is  not  conducive 
to  cavalry  success,  although  it  may  be  entirely  applicable 
to  infantry. 


*  During  the  Civil  War  several  general  and  many  subordinate  officers 
learned  by  bitter  experience  that  they  were  not  safe  billeted  in  houses,  even 
in  the  midst  of  troops.  A  notable  occurrence  was  the  capture  of  General 
STOUGHTON  while  asleep  in  bed  at  the  house  of  Dr.  GUNNEL  in  Fairfax 
Court  House,  Va.,  several  miles  within  the  Federal  lines.  This  was  accom- 
plished by  MOSBY,  who,  with  his  men,  passed  through  the  picket  line  in 
some  heavy  pine  timber  during  a  dark  and  rainy  night.  The  guards  on  the 
streets  were  approached  under  the  guise  of  patrols,  and  all  were  captured 
without  firing  a  shot.  A  captain  and  a  number  of  men  were  captured,  and 
also  nearly  sixty  animals,  many  of  them  being  officers'  horses.  A  number 
of  individuals  were  captured  in  this  way  during  the  progress  of  the  war, 
among  them  being  the  late  Major-General  CROOK. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 
THE    RUSSIAN    CAVALRY. 


225 


The  Russian  cavalry  is  composed  of  cuirassier,  uhlan, 
hussar  and  dragoon  regiments,  the  greater  portion  having 
the  last  named  designation. 

The  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  are  armed 
with  the  saber  and  rifle  with  bayonet.  Trumpeters  carry 
the  saber  and  revolver.  The  rifle  is  carried  slung  over  the 


Fig-   4'- 

back,  muzzle  in  rear  of  the  left  shoulder,  and  the  saber  is 
also  attached  to  the  person  of  the  trooper. 

The  Russian  cavalry  saddle  is  made  with  somewhat 
larger  side  bars  than  the  usual  military  saddle,  but  the 
arches  appear  very  light.  The  arches  forming  the  pommel 
and  cantle  are  riveted  to  the  side  bars,  and  are  connected 
together  by  a  strap  which  supports  the  cushion  or  seat. 
Fig.  41  shows  the  tree;  the  staples  seen  near  the  ends  of 
the  side  bars  are  for  attaching  the  straps  to  secure  the  front 
and  rear  packs. 

Felt  pads  are  placed  under  the  side  bars,  being  held  in 


226  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

place  by  a  pocket  over  the  front  and  a  strap  around  the 
rear  end  of  the  bars  behind  the  cantle  arch. 

Fig.  42  shows  the  saddle  packed  for  service.     No.  i  is 


Fig.  42. 

the  cushion  or  seat;  2,  the  skirt;  3,  the  stirrup  strap;  4,  4, 
the  saddle  girths;  5,  the  saddle  cloth;  6,  the  overcoat;  7, 
the  picket-pin;  8,  the  saddle-bags;  9,  the  kettle;  10,  the 
horse  blanket;  1 1,  1 1,  the  pack  straps;  13,  the  breast  strap. 
The  front  pack  consists  of  the  overcoat,  grain  bag,  with 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


227 


one  day's  forage,  picket-pin,  and  two  leather  holsters  into 
which  the  ends  of  the  grain  bag  are  firmly  tied. 


PLATE  XXIII. 


The  saddle-bags,  carried  in  rear  of  the  cantle,  contain 
such  of  the  following  articles  as  are  not  strapped  to  the 
cantle: 


228 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


Right  side — Brush,  shirt,  pair  drawers,  pair  short  top 
boots,  linen  pieces  for  socks,  hay  net,  halter,  two  horse- 

PLATE  XX It. 


shoes,  sixteen  nails  and  a  currycomb,  in   a  leather  bag. 

Left  side — Bread  in  bag,  three  pounds;  bandages  for 

wounded;  bags  with  groats,  salt,  sugar  and  tea,  wrapped 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  22Q 

in  a  piece  of  cloth  to  be  used  for  mending ;  soap,  towels, 
etc.,  wrapped  in  a  piece  of  linen;  hopples,  with  leather 
straps;  nose  bag  and  horse  brush. 

The  total  weight  of  the  Russian  cavalry  equipment, 
including  the  rifle  or  carbine  and  thirty- six  rounds  of  am- 
munition, is  about  120  pounds,  and  the  estimated  weight 
of  the  soldier,  as  given  in  their  latest  hand-book,  is  167.4 
pounds.  This  makes  the  total  weight  carried  by  the  horse 
about  288  pounds. 

Plate  XXIII — copied  from  a  photograph  taken  at  the 
Officers'  Cavalry  School — shows  a  Russian  dragoon 
equipped  for  field  service,  and  Plate  XXIV  shows  the 
same  trooper  on  the  reverse  side. 

THE    BELGIAN    CAVALRY. 

Although  Belgium  is  a  comparatively  small  country,  its 
proximity  to  powerful  and  warlike  nations  offers  the 
opportunity 'for  keeping  in  touch  with  modern  and  pro- 
gressive ideas. 

The  Belgian  cavalry  consists  of  chasseurs,  lancers  and 
guides,  the  first  and  last  named  being  armed  with  carbine 
and  saber. 

All  cavalry  non-commissioned  officers  above  the  grade 
of  corporal  carry  the  revolver,  and  do  not  carry  the  carbine. 

The  Belgian  cavalry  saddle  (Fig.  43)  is  composed  of 
beech  side  bars,  to  which  are  riveted  arches  of  hammered 
steel,  forming  the  pommel  and  the  can  tie.  The  side  bars 

o»^^N 
rUHIVBRSITT] 


230 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


are  covered  with  felt  pads,  which  are  attached  by  means 
of  leather  pockets.     There  is  a  broad  strip  of  fair  leather 

on  the  under  side 
covering  the  space 
between  the  bars, 
and  which  is  at- 
tached to  the  pom- 
mel and  cantle. 

The  side  bars 
are  pierced  with 
mortises  for  the 
stirrup  straps. 
The  left  bar  has 
two  screw  staples, 
with  rings  for  the 
saber  boot,  and  a 
plaited  rawhide 
loop  for  the  forage 
cord. 

There  is  a  seat 
piece  of  fair  leather 
attached  to  the 
arches,  between 
which  and  the  tree 
is  a  pad  stuffed 
with  hair.  Two  skirts  or  flaps  of  fair  leather  are'riveted 
to  the  seat  piece.  The  stirrups  are  narrow,  and  made  of 
steel;  the  stirrup  straps  are  of  fair  leather. 


Fig.  43 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


23I 


Two  leather  pouches,  joined  by  a  broad  band,  are  hung 
over  the  pommel,  and  brown  canvas  saddle-bags  are  carried 
in  rear  of  the  cantle. 

PL  A  T£  XXV. 


The  equipments  vary  slightly  for  the  different  classes 
of  cavalry,   those   of   the    guides   being   nearest  like   the 


232  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

American.     The   following  is  a  list  of  clothing,  kit  and 
•equipment  carried  by  them: 

Lbs.  Ozs. 

Overcoat 8           12. 

Cloth  blouse 3           n. 

Pair  trousers  with  leather  bottoms 4            5- 

Fatigue  cap 4- 

Flannel  jacket i            6.6 

Busby *           ii. 

•Cord  for  same 1.5 

Two  collars 2.9 

Two  pairs  half  boots  or  high  shoes 5            4-7 

Pair  leather  gloves 2.4 

Two  pairs  socks '34 

Two  shirts 4            i- 

Pair  linen  trousers 3            3-5 

Two  pairs  drawers i           n-5 

Towel 8-6 

Comb -5 

Pair  scissors 2.8 

Bag  for  needles,  thread,  etc.  ,  . -9 

Set  of  brushes,  (three — clothes,  gun,  grease) n. 

Two  pairs  of  spurs 4-2 

Pair  of  spur  covers i. 

Saber  knot i-7 

Water  bottle  (canteen)  with  sling i            1.7 

Surcingle 6.8 

Horse  brush n. 

Currycomb 14.5 

Forage  cord 7- 

Sponge -5 

Grease  box 1.2 

Grain  sack i5-§ 

Nose  bag 10. 

Pair  of  saddle-bags  of  brown  canvas 2            5. 

Two  bags  for  small  articles,  (brushes,  etc.) .4 

Bidon,  (serves  the  purpose  of  our  meat  can  and  tin  cup) i            4. 

Saber  belt 10. 

Saddle  with  girth,  straps,  felt  pads  and  stirrups,  complete  ...  34            6. 

Saddle  blanket  of  brown  wool .  86. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


233 


Lbs. 


Ozs. 
'5 


Bridle,  complete,  with  halter 4 

Carbine  with  sling 8  13. 

Saber  with  scabbard 4  5. 

Add  to  the  above  one  knife,  one  fork  and  one  spoon ;  also  one  screw 
ring  for  hitching  horses  to  trees,  posts,  etc.,  and  weiging  about  8.8  ozs. 

PLA  TE  XXVI. 


234  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

The  manner  of  packing  the  saddle  and  carrying  the 
arms  in  the  guides  is  shown  in  Plate  XXV,  and  the  same 
trooper  on  the  reverse  side  in  Plate  XXVI. 

THE    AUSTRIAN    CAVALRY. 

The  Austrian  cavalry,  like  the  German,  is  divided  into 
dragoons,  hussars  and  lancers,  but  all  are  similarly  armed 
and  equipped,  the  only  difference  being  in  designation  and 
uniform. 

The  troopers  are  armed  with  the  saber  and  a  magazine 
carbine  of  small  caliber,  which  they  are  taught  to  use  on 
foot. 

The  Austrian  cavalry  enjoys  the  reputation  of  being  as 
good,  if  not  better,  than  any  in  Europe.  It  is  mounted 
upon  a  good  class  of  saddle  horses  with  great  powers  of 
endurance.  The  Hungarians,  Poles  and  Gallicians  have 
always  been  celebrated  in  Europe  as  horsemen,  and  they 
furnish  a  considerable  portion  of  men  for  the  cavalry. 

Men  and  horses  are  both  comparatively  light;  there  is 
no  distinction  as  to  light  and  heavy  cavalry. 

The  interests  of  the  arm  are  constantly  studied  and 
cared  for  by  the  Inspector-General  of  Cavalry  and  the 
Cavalry  Bureau,  which  is  specially  charged  with  all  matters 
pertaining  to  the  personnel  and  material  of  the  cavalry 
branch.  This  is  a  matter  worthy  of  consideration  in  the 
American  service,  even  in  times  of  profound  peace. 

The  saddle-tree  and  cover  are  shown  in  Fig.  44. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  235 

The  saddle-tree  is  composed  of  two  wooden  side  bars, 
to  which  are  riveted  a  wooden  pommel  and  can  tie.     The 


Fig.  44. 

slope  of  the  pommel  and  cantle  is  about  forty-five  degrees, 
the  cantle  being  somewhat  longer  than  the  pommel. 


236  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

The  side  bars  contain  holes  for  the  stirrup  straps,  and 
also  small  orifices  through  which  the  ties  pass  for  fastening 
the  girth  to  the  saddle-tree.  The  bars  are  encased  in  felt 
covers  with  leather  corners.  The  pommel  and  cantle  are 
connected  by  a  piece  of  leather,  upon  which  the  leather 
seat  rests;  the  seat  and  flaps  or  skirts  form  one  piece, 
which  is  fastened  to  the  pommel  and  cantle  by  thongs. 
The  flaps  have  holes  through  which  the  stirrup  straps  pass. 
The  girth  is  of  two  pieces  of  leather  fastened  to  the  side 
bars  and  with  a  buckle  on  the  longer  piece.  The  surcingle, 
also  of  leather,  is  fastened  over  the  saddle.  Heavy  steel 
stirrups  with  a  broad  tread  are  used. 

The  saddle  is  comparatively  light,  and  the  seat  is  high 
enough  above  the  horse's  back  to  admit  of  a  good  circu- 
lation of  air.  Careful  attentio^  is  paid  to  fitting  saddles, 
and  fifty  with  adjustable  side  bars  are  allowed  each  regi- 
ment for  special  cases.  The  simplicity,  dimensions  and 
general  shape  of  the  saddle-tree  commend  it  for  military 
purposes. 

A  black  leather  breast  strap  is  used,  but  no  crupper. 

The  saddle  blanket  is  about  five  feet  square,  folded  in 
six  folds.  The  saddle  is  prevented  from  slipping  by  the 
felt  pads  on  the  side  bars. 

When  the  trooper  is  equipped  for  field  service  (Plate 
XXVII)  the  saddle  is  packed  as  follows:  in  the  right 
wallet,  reserve  rations  for  three  days,  two  shirts,  two  pairs 
of  drawers,  foot-cloths  used  as  socks,  forage  cap,  house- 
wife and  toilet  articles;  in  the  left  wallet,  the  nose  bag, 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


237 


currycomb,  horse  brush,  one  day's  ordinary  ration  ex- 
clusive of  bread,  knife,  fork  and  spoon,  oil,  grease,  blacking-, 
brushes,  and  other  minor  articles  for  cleaning  arms. 

PL  A  TE  XXVII. 


238  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

A  horseshoe  pouch  of  black  leather  with  flap  is  fastened 
to  the  left  side  of  the  saddle  near  the  cantle,  and  contains 
two  fore  shoes,  nails,  a  hoof-pick,  and  in  winter  twelve 
sharp  and  four  dull  screw  ice-calks,  the  latter  being  carried 
in  a  small  pocket  with  a  nipple  wrench. 

A  wooden  picket-pin,  with  an  iron  point  and  ring,  is 
strapped  on  the  left  wallet  with  the  rope  hopples  for  the 
fore  feet. 

A  forage  sack,  containing  two  grain  bags,  each  packed 
with  half  of  the  grain  carried,  is  fastened  at  the  middle  of 
the  cantle.  The  bread  ration,  in  two  parts,  is  carried  under 
the  grain  bags.  When  a  feed  is  taken  from  one  side  the 
balance  of  the  grain  is  equally  distributed  between  the  two 
bags.  When  the  grain  bags  are  empty  they  are  folded  up 
and  laid  on  the  sack  with  the  bread. 

The  mess  pot,  in  a  canvas  case,  is  strapped  on  the  great 
coat.  When  hay  is  carried  it  is  twisted  in  a  long  circular 
whisp,  and  fastened  over  the  wallets  on  the  pommel. 

A  telescopic  canvas  water  bucket  is  strapped  to  the  near 
wallet. 

A  felt- covered  water  bottle  is  carried  over  the  right 
shoulder,  strung  on  a  cord.  The  cooking  utensils  and 
eating  tin  are  carried  on  the  saddle. 

The  carbine  is  carried  slung  on  the  trooper's  back  (Fig. 
45),  butt  down,  and  muzzle  opposite  the  left  shoulder. 
Each  trooper  carries  fifty  rounds  of  carbine  ammunition, 
distributed  as  follows:  twenty  rounds  on  the  waist  belt, 
in  two  boxes,  each  containing  ten  ;  twenty  rounds  in  a 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


239 


special  pocket  on  the  front  edge  of  the  left  saddle-bag,  and 

ten  rounds  in  the  left  pocket  of  the  latter.     Thirty  rounds 

of  pistol  cartridges  are 
carried  in  two  pouches 
by  the  officers  and  those 
of  the  men  who  are 
armed  with  the  pistol. 

The  average  load 
carried  by  the  horse,  in- 
cluding trooper,  equip- 
ments, rations,  forage, 
and  a  share  of  the  tools, 
weighs  more  than  297 
pounds.  This  load  must 
be  reduced,  or  the 
Austrians  will  have  to 
abandon  the  idea  that 
they  possess  the  typical 
light  cavalrymen  of 
Europe. 

A  set  of  fours  of  hus- 
sars is  shown  in  Plate 
XXVIII,  which  illus- 
trates the  method  of 
attaching  the  horses  to- 
gether when  dismounted 

action    occurs.       This   illustration    does    not    accord    with 

American  ideas  on  the  subject. 


240 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


No  other  nation  has  ever  fought  its  cavalry  on  foot  to 
such  an  extent  as  was  done  in  America  during  the  Civil 
War  and  since.  This  experience  taught,  that  in  order  to 
follow  up  a  line  fighting  dismounted  in  rough  country, 


PLA'IE  XXVI II. 


through  and  over  obstacles,  it  is  necessary  to  link  the 
heads  of  the  horses  firmly  and  close  together.  They  lead 
..  much  "better  and  do  not  become  tangled  up  in  each  other's 
bridles.  Even  when  properly  and  carefully  linked  together, 
horses  require  much  drill  before  they  can  be  conducted 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  24 F 

rapidly  from  place  to  place.  Horses  in  column  of  fours- 
should  be  linked  so  that  their  heads  will  not  be  more  than 
eighteen  inches  apart. 

It  is  observed  that  not  only  the  Austrians,  but  Conti- 
nental nations  generally,  with  the  exception  of  the  Ger- 
mans, carry  the  carbine  on  the  trooper's  back  instead  of 
attaching  it  to  the  saddle. 

Theoretically,  the  slinging  of  the  carbine  over  the  left 
shoulder  and  strapping  it  snugly  to  the  back  is  the  best 
way  for  the  gun,  as  well  as  for  the  horse.  In  this  position 
the  carbine  is  not  liable  to  injury,  and  is  always  with  the 
trooper  when  he  dismounts,  no  time  being  lost  in  detaching 
it  from  the  saddle.  It  is  very  much  harder  on  the  trooper, 
the  fatigue  being  doubly  severe  whenever  the  trot  is  taken. 
The  horse  has  to  carry  the  weight  whether  it  is  on 
the  man  or  the  saddle.  Everything  being  considered, 
Americans  prefer  not  to  put  the  weight  on  the  trooper,  for 
the  fatigue  occasioned  by  carrying  a  gun  across  the  back 
all  day  is  apt  to  produce  lounging  in  the  saddle,  which,  in 
the  end,  is  more  disastrous  to  the  horse  than  if  the  gun  is 
hung  in  some  manner  from  the  saddle. 

Sabers  are  carried  on  the  person  in  some  armies  and 
attached  to  the  saddle  in  others.  A  saber  suitable  for  a 
mounted  man  is  an  encumbrance  to  him  on  foot,  and 
should  always  be  attached  to  the  saddle.  In  this  position 
it  makes  but  little  noise  compared  to  that  produced  when 
hanging  from  the  trooper's  waist. 

There  is  not  much  difference  between  the  equipments. 


242  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

and  kits  in  various  armies  as  to  weight,  but  there  are  many 
opinions  and  customs  regarding  the  distribution  and  ad- 
justment of  the  packs.  Many  little  things  which  appear 
trifling  may  have  great  bearing  upon  the  comfort  and 
endurance  of  both  men  and  horses. 

Saddles  and  bridles  for  military  purposes  abroad  are 
very  generally  made  of  fair  leather.  The  use  of  felt  pads 
laced  on  to  the  side  bars  is  so  general,  that  it  might  be 
profitable  to  try  the  experiment  with  American  saddles,  to 
determine  whether  the  saddle  blanket  can  be  prevented 
from  slipping  by  such  means. 


CHAPTER    XI. 


HE  A  TS. 

Variety  of  Seats.  — Value  of  a  Well  Balanced  Seat.  — Safest  and  Best 
Seat.— Balance,  Friction  and  Stirrups.  —  Seat  Depends  upon  Purpose 
in  Riding. —  Long  or  Chair  Seat;  " Tongs-across-a-wall "  Seat;  Fork 
Seat;  Military  Seat. 

In  observing  riders  from  day  to  day  it  is  surprising  to 
note  what  a  variety  of  attitudes  are  assumed  by  them  in 
the  saddle.  The  conformation  of  the  rider  of  course  has 
some  influence,  for  a  short,  heavy-built  man  must  not  be 
expected  to  present  the  same  appearance  as  a  man  with 
very  long  legs  projecting  down  below  the  body  of  the 
horse. 

Those  who  have  absorbed  a  practical  knowledge  of 
riding  early  in  life  constitute  a  class  almost  distinct  and 
apart  from  those  who  have  deferred  mounting  horses  until 
full-grown  men,  although  many  of  the  latter  become 
accomplished  horsemen.  Boys  who  learn  to  ride,  and 
have  no  fear  of  horses,  almost  invariably  sit  well  down  in 
their  saddles  ever  afterwards,  whereas  a  large  proportion 
of  those  who  have  never  mounted  a  horse  until  their 
muscles  and  bones  are  "set,"  are  very  apt  to  lean  forward 
instead  of  sitting  down  closely  and  maintaining  continuous 
contact  with  the  saddle. 


244  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

This  latter  style  of  riding  is  nearly  always  accompanied 
by  a  heavy  hand  on  the  bit,  instead  of  that  easy  "give  and 
take"  feeling  on  the  horse's  mouth,  which  is  so  necessary 
in  order  to  derive  any  pleasure  or  comfort  in  the  saddle. 
This  light  and  changeable  feeling  of  the  horse's  mouth  is 
incompatible  with  any  but  a  secure  and  well-balanced  seat. 

The  necessity  for  relaxing  the  pressure  of  the  mouth- 
piece on  the  bars,  except  when  it  is  desired  to  gather  the 
horse  in  hand,  ought  to  be  apparent  to  any  thoughtful 
person,  yet  more  horses  are  ruined  for  saddle  purposes  by 
a  neglect  of  this  than  from  any  other  cause.  A  rider  with 
little  confidence  in  his  seat  is  almost  certain  to  depend 
upon  a  good  steady  pull  on  the  reins  for  assistance.  Hence 
it  arises  that  when  such  a  person  mounts  a  well  trained 
saddle  horse  with  a  delicate  mouth,  accustomed  to  regard 
the  lightest  pressure  of  the  reins  as  an  indication  or 
signal  from  the  rider,  he  at  once  confuses  the  animal,  which 
being  unable  to  understand  what  the  pulling  means,  begins 
to  fret  and  prance,  thus  making  the  already  insecure  seat 
more  so. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  lightness  or  heaviness 
of  the  rider's  hand  depends  mainly  upon  the  stability  of 
his  seat,  and  this  cannot  be  too  often  impressed  upon  the 
minds  of  those  learning  to  ride. 

Aside  from  the  great  value  to  the  rider  himself  of  a 
well-balanced  seat,  the  stability  of  the  saddle  and  the  safety 
of  the  horse's  back  are  also  involved.  It  is  treading  on 
dangerous  ground  to  prescribe  one  seat  as  applicable  and 


HORSES,    SADDLED    AND    BRIDLES.  245 

the  only  correct  seat  for  all  riding.  So  long  as  whole  na- 
tions ride  certain  seats  entirely  different  from  those  used 
"by  other  nations,  it  will  be  seen  that  habit  has  much  to  do 
with  riding.  By  early  training  and  long  practice  one  may 
be  able  to  accomplish  the  ends  for  which  he  mounts  a  horse 
while  riding  a  seat  apparently  at  variance  with  all  orthodox 
ideas  upon  the  subject. 

The  safest  and  best  seat  is  that  which  permits  a  proper 
use  of  the 'stirrups  in  combination  with  balance  and  fric- 
tion. If  proof  of  this  were  required,  it  would  only  be 
necessary  to  point  out  the  fact  that  Indians  and  other  un- 
civilized nations  accustomed  to  bareback  riding,  which  is 
the  perfection  of  balance  and  friction  riding,  uniformly 
adopt  saddles  and  stirrups  as  soon  as  contact  with  other 
riders  teaches  them  the  value  of  these  articles. 

The  varieties  of  seat  all  depend  primarily  upon  balance, 
friction,  and  the  aid  of  stirrups.  Of  these  balance  is  by 
far  the  most  important,  otherwise  a  broken  stirrup  strap 
or  loose  cincha  might  produce  a  fall  from  the  horse.  The 
combination  of  all  three,  without  exclusive  dependence 
upon  any  one,  will  give  the  most  satisfactory  results. 

The  purpose  for  which  the  rider  mounts  his  horse  deter- 
mines to  a  great  extent  the  kind  of  seat  he  will  ride.  The 
jockey,  in  the  merest  apology  for  a  saddle,  his  feet  shoved 
home  in  light  steel  stirrups,  and  whose  sole  duty  is  to  ride 
to  orders  and  land  his  mount  first  under  the  wire,  presents 
few  points  of  resemblance  to  the  cow-boy,  who,  in  his  fifty- 
pound  saddle,  fearlessly  ropes  half-wild  cattle,  and  holds 


246  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

them  down  by  wrapping  his  rope  around  the  horn  of  his 
saddle  and  ''stretching  them  out." 

Military  riding  cannot  be  properly  classed  with  any 
other  kind  of  riding,  because  its  object  is  entirely  different. 
Park  and  road  riding  present  no  resemblance  to  it,  because 
in  these  the  individual  taste  of  the  rider  dictates  all  his 
appointments  and  the  gait  of  his  horse.  It  is  here  that  the 
trained  and  many-gaited  saddle  horse  finds  his  proper  field 
of  action.  A  light  leather  saddle  is  all  that  is  required, 
whereas  in  military  riding  a  heavy  wooden  frame,  capable 
of  having  a  hundred-pound  weight  of  pack  attached,  is  an 
absolute  necessity  according  to  the  ideas  which  have 
generally  prevailed  on  the  subject.  This  military  saddle 
must  also  have  a  high  pommel  and  cantle,  which  detract 
much  from  its  appearance,  but  are  indispensable  because 
of  the  pack. 

Hunting  involves  rough  riding  across  country,  but  the 
seat  is  not  limited  by  any  such  necessities  as  apply  in  the 
case  of  military  riding.  In  following  the  hounds  the  rider 
has  usually  a  trained  jumper,  and  his  riding  is  practically 
over  a  straight- away  course  involving  no  sudden  turns  or 
halts  except  in  event  of  accident.  Even  though  the  hunts- 
man keeps  well  up  with  the  hounds,  and  may  at  times  find 
himself  bunched  with  many  others,  it  is  vastly  different 
from  the  rushing,  thundering  noise  of  a  boot-to-boot  charge 
over  unknown  ground,  perhaps  in  a  cloud  of  dust  or  smoke, 
where  a  secure  seat,  entirely  independent  of  the  reins,  is 
an  absolute  necessity. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


247 


In  any  particular  form  of  seat  all  men  do  not  appear 
exactly    the    same.       Aside    from    lack    of   uniformity    in 


PLATE    XXIX. 


instruction  there  must  be  some  reason  for  minor  variations 
of  seat,  and  the  most  probable  one  is  that  certain  forms  of 


248 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


legs  are  adapted  to  grasping  the  horse  correctly  without 
undue  constraint,  whereas  it  is  quite  impossible  for  men 


PL  A  TE  XXX. 


— 


r 


with  legs  of  other  shapes  to  sustain  the  proper  grip  when 
necessary  for  prolonged  periods. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  249 

There  are  several  well  recognized  varieties  of  seats 
besides  the  military  seat,  which,  however,  contains  the 
essential  elements  of  all  good  seats.  These  various  seats 
may  be  fairly  classed  under  three  general  forms:  The 
long  seat,  in  which  the  rider  sits  well  back  and  raises  his 
thighs  almost  to  a  horizontal  position;  the  " tongs-across-a 
wall"  seat,  in  which  the  legs  are  held  straight,  with  the 
toes  stuck  out  and  to  the  front;  and,  finally,  the  fork  seat, 
in  which  the  legs  are  held  straight  down  beside  the  horse, 
perpendicularly  to  the  ground. 

The  long  seat  is  not  adapted  to  military  saddles,  par- 
ticularly the  American.  The  position  of  the  legs  is  shown 
in  Plate  XXIX,  but  of  course  in  order  to  ride  this  seat  the 
stirrups  must  be  shortened. 

The  long  seat  with  short  stirrups  is  used  very  generally 
for  hunting  and  cross-country  riding,  where  difficult  jumps 
may  be  expected.  It  is  claimed,  and  generally  conceded, 
that  the  horse  held  between  the  legs  from  the  calf  up, 
with  the  knees  far  forward,  gives  greater  security  when 
landing  after  a  big  jump.  In  jumping,  the  difficulty  of 
remaining  in  the  saddle  increases  rapidly  as  the  obstacle  is 
higher.  For  this  reason  hunting  saddles  are  quite  often 
provided  with  rolls  against  which  to  brace  the  legs.* 


*  At  a  high  jumping  contest  which  took  place  at  a  horse  show  in  Madison 
Square  Garden,  New  York,  between  FRED.  GEBHARDT'S  "Leo"  and  a 
Canadian  horse,  it  seemed  impossible  for  the  rider  on  "Leo"  to  come  down 
elsewhere  than  on  the  animal's  neck.  "  Leo "  approached  the  bars  slowly 
and  bucked  over,  while  the  Canadian  horse  took  them  at  a  flying  leap,  the 
rider  of  the  latter  appearing  but  little  disturbed  in  the  saddle. 


250  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

The  "tongs-across-a-wall"  seat  (Plate  XXX)  is  not 
adapted  to  difficult  riding  of  any  kind,  for  a  lost  stirrup  or 
broken  strap  will  compel  the  rider  to  change  his  form  of 
seat  or  fall  off.  It  may  do  at  a  walk  or  canter  on  a  very 
easy  gaited  animal,  so  far  as  the  rider  is  concerned,  but 
the  weight  is  transmitted  to  the  fore  legs  in  such  a  way  as 
to  have  not  only  a  retarding  effect  on  the  movements  of 
the  horse,  but  also  to  create  permanent  injury  to  the  fore 
legs.  This  is  a  serious  matter  in  active  service,  because 
a  very  large  proportion  of  horses  break  down  in  the  fore 
legs,  while  the  hind  legs  remain  uninjured. * 

Keeping  the  knee  straight  produces  much  weariness. 
When  the  trot  is  taken  the  rider  instinctively  leans  back, 
curving  the  lower  part  of  his  spine,  and  sitting  well  up  on 
the  cantle,  more  on  the  back  part  than  on  the  bottom  of 
his  buttocks.  To  maintain  this  position  the  feet  are  stuck 
forward  and  outward.  The  seat,  viewed  from  behind 
(Plate  XXXI),  shows  it  to  be  not  only  awkward  but  very 
insecure  in  every  way.  With  the  feet  stuck  forward  the 
saber  cannot  be  properly  used  to  make  effective  points,  nor 
can  the  trooper  lean  out  of  his  saddle  to  make  cuts  to  the 
right  and  left.  It  is  emphatically  a  parade  and  not  a  ser- 
vice seat,  and  should  be  avoided  by  those  who  desire  to 
attain  perfection  in  horsemanship. 

*  After  General  SHERIDAN'S  raid  with  the  Cavalry  Corps  to  Richmond, 
an  expedition  of  about  thirty  days'  duration,  the  unserviceable  and  broken- 
down  horses  were  gathered  together  in  a  park  at  City  Point,  to  the  number 
of  about  6,000.  A  careful  inspection  of  these  animals  showed  that  while 
they  wrere  remarkably  free  from  bruised  withers  and  sore  backs,  they  were 
all  thin,  and  mostly  broken-down  in  front. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 
PLATE  XXXI. 


251 


H  <  */:/  / 

SWP 


252 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


In  the  fork  seat  (Plate  XXXII)  the  legs  are  carried 
down  perpendicularly  to  the  ground,  and  the  rider  does 


PLATE   XXX 1 1. 


not  remain  seated  on  his  buttocks,  but  rests  on  his  crotch 
and  the  inside  of  his  thighs.     In  this  position  the  rider  is 


U«i  V  JDH'QJL  J.   X  tf 

HORSES,    SADDLES    AXD    URIDLES.  253 

very  solid,  for  his  legs  embrace  the  horse  very  firmly  from 
the  calf  up  to  the  crotch. 

The  fork  seat  is  a  very  common  one  in  various  parts  of 
America,  as  well  as  other  parts  of  the  world.  While  by 
no  means  the  seat  for  all-around  purposes,  it  is  ridden 
exclusively  by  whole  tribes  and  nations  of  natural  riders, 
some  with  the  stirrup  short  enough  to  hold  the  sole  of  the1 
foot  parallel  to  the  ground,  while  with  others  the  stirrup 
is  so  long  that  the  toe  is  bent  down  to  gain  contact  with 
the  tread.  It  is  condemned  for  military  purposes  as 
unsuited  to  long  marches  at  a  trot,  although  it  is  frequently 
used  for  long  distance  rides  made  on  the  frontier  with 
small  native  horses,  whose  habitual  gait  is  an  easy  canter. 

The  mechanical  disadvantage  of  this  seat  arises  from 
the  fact  that  when  the  leg  is  straight  the  thigh  is  round 
instead  of  flat  as  required  for  gripping  the  horse. 

It  is  very  commonly  assumed  during  the  excitement-  of 
the  charge  by  a  majority  of  troopers,  who,  in  order  to  use 
the  saber  effectively,  stand  in  their  stirrups. 

In  the  military  seat  (Plates  XXXIII  and  XXXIV)  the 
rider  should  sit  in  the  middle  of  the  saddle,  taking  his 
weight  upon  his  buttocks  equally;  the  body  and  head  erect 
and  square  to  the  front,  with  shoulders  well  back  and  the 
chest  pushed  slightly  forward ;  the  forearm  of  the  bridle 
hand  horizontal,  and  the  elbow  close  to  the  body  without 
pressing  against  it ;  the  right  arm  hanging  naturally,  with 
the  hand  behind  the  thigh;  the  inner  surface  of  the  thighs 
in  close  contact  with  the  horse  and  saddle  from  the  knees 


2  54  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

to  the  buttocks,  the  direction  of  the  thighs  being;  about 
parallel  to  the  horse's  shoulders;  the  lower  part  of  the  legs, 


PLATE   XXX I II. 


from  the  knees  down,  should  fall  naturally,  and  be  com- 
pletely under  the  control  of  the  rider  for  use  as  aids  in 
directing  the  horse.  The  stirrups  should  be  adapted  to 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

PLATE    XXX IV. 


255 


the  seat/  and  the  stirrup  leathers  should  be  of  such  length 
that  when  the  ball  of  the  foot  rests  on  the  tread  of  the 


256  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

stirrup  the  heel  will  be  slightly  lower  than  the  toes,  and 
both  leathers  of  exactly  the  same  length. 

Stirrups  should  not  be  worn  so  long  as  to  render  the 
tread  on  them  insecure,  nor  so  short  as  to  cramp  up  the 
legs.  In  either  case  the  rider  is  to  some  extent  deprived 
of  the  proper  use  of  his  legs  as  aids,  and  is  not  able  to 
maintain  a  correct  seat. 

The  position  of  the  foot  giving  the  greatest  satisfaction 
is  that  which  requires  no  muscular  effort  to  prevent  the 
toe  from  turning  out,  and  in  which  the  sole  remains  firmly 
upon  the  tread  of  the  stirrup  when  the  horse  trots. 

With  a  military  seat  as  described,  the  rider  should  be 
able  to  bend  the  body  forward,  backward,  or  to  either  side 
without  disturbing  the  grasp  of  the  thighs  or  moving  the 
feet.  He  should  also  be  able  to  move  the  legs  below  the 
knee  with  entire  freedom  without  altering  his  seat  or 
disturbing  the  carriage  of  the  body.  The  toes  should  not 
be  turned  out,  as  it  causes  the  calves  of  the  legs  to  grip  the 
horse,  and  involves  unintentional  spurring  every  time  the 
horses  crowd  in  ranks.  By"  keeping  the  feet  nearly  or 
quite  parallel  to  the  side  of  the  horse  the  rider  is  enabled 
to  move  the  lower  part  of  his  legs  so  as  to  indicate  through 
them,  in  conjunction  with  his  hands,  what  movement  the 
horse  is  desired  to  execute.  The  rider  also  avoids  con- 
tracting the  very  bad  habit  of  continually  pounding  the 
horse  with  his  heels,  as  is  done  often  by  the  rider  who 
turns  out  his  toes,  and  always  by  Indians  and  Oriental 
nations. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  257 

While  the  rider  should  sit  erect,  all  appearance  of  stiff- 
ness should  be  avoided,  for  rigidity  of  the  rider  is  incom- 
patible with  the  supple  action  of  the  trained  saddle  horse 
in  motion. 

When  mounted  bareback,  or  with  the  blanket  and  sur- 
cingle, the  trooper  sits  in  the  middle  of  the  horse's  back 
with  the  same  seat  practically  except  as  to  the  feet.  While 
these  are  kept  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  horse,  the  toes- 
are  lower  than  the  heels,  and  point  in  a  natural  way  for- 
wards and  downwards. 

It  will  be  apparent  at  a  glance  that  to  keep  the  heel 
lower  than  the  toes  without  a  stirrup  would  involve  much 
unnatural  constraint,  which,  instead  of  adding  security  to- 
the  seat,  would  seriously  impair  its  stability. 

In  long  continued  trotting  exercises  on  the  ring  or 
in  the  riding  hall,  without  saddles,  the  tendency  of  most 
horses  is  to  gradually  work  the  rider  forward  to  the  withers. 
In  such  cases  the  rider  should  place  his  hand  or  hands  on 
the  withers  and  move  the  body  back  to  its  proper  place, 
for  the  rider  feels  less  of  the  roughness  of  the  trotting  gait 
at  the  middle  of  the  animal's  back  than  when  seated 
against  his  withers. 

For  military  riding  much  uniformity  is  demanded  at  all 
times,  and  this  circumscribes  the  variations  of  seat  allowed 
to  very  narrow  limits.  The  best  way  to  secure  this  uni- 
formity, which  is  desired  not  for  the  sake  of  appearances 
but  for  the  cavalryman's  legitimate  performance  of  duty, 
is  to  arrange  the  saddle  and  stirrups  so  that  the  average 


258  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

Tecruit,  when  fairly  instructed,  will  find  it  easier  to  sit 
properly  than  any  other  way. 

The  cavalry  soldier  is  often  compelled  to  stand  in  his 
stirrups  in  order  to  make  effective  use  of  his  arms.  It  is 
therefore  necessary  to  place  the  stirrups  so  that  when  the 
trooper  rises  he  can  do  so  without  constraint  to  himself  or 
disturbance  to  the  equilibrium  of  the  horse.  This  condi- 
tion is  best  secured  when  the  stirrups  are  placed  only  a 
short  distance  in  front  of  the  center  of  the  saddle,  for  then 
the  rider  in  rising  does  not  have  to  move  forward  and  can 
resume  his  seat  with  ease.  Furthermore,  no  muscular  ac- 
tion is  required  to  keep  the  stirrups  in  position,  since  they 
support  the  legs  in  their  natural  fall. 

It  has  always  been  the  custom  in  the  American  army 
to  teach  recruits  to  ride  bareback,  or  with  a  blanket  and 
surcingle,  before  allowing  the  use  of  a  saddle.  Inasmuch 
as  the  most  difficult  thing  to  attain  is  balance,  and  the 
stirrup  was  devised  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  in  acquiring 
and  maintaining  it,  it  would  seem  reasonable  to  first  teach 
the  correct  seat  in  the  saddle  and  afterwards  perfect  it  by 
riding  without  a  saddle.  For  teaching  a  firm,  close  seat, 
nothing  is  as  good  as  the  trot  without  stirrups. 

When  this  seat  is  once  acquired  the  rider  has  better 
control  of  the  horse  than  through  any  other  seat  which  can 
be  devised.  If  through  fear  or  temper  the  horse  swerves, 
the  rider  instinctively  grasps  with  his  thighs,  and  the  stir- 
rups being  directly  below  the  seat,  balance  is  not  lost.  If 
the  horse  stops  suddenly  there  is  no  tendency  to  shoot  over 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.        .  259 

his  head,  as  when  the  feet  are  stuck  forward  and  the  legs 
straight.  If  the  horse  rears,  no  time  is  lost  in  bringing 
back  the  feet  and  counteracting  the  tendency  to  slip  off 
over  the  cantle.  In  fact,  every  sudden  or  unexpected 
movement  of  the  horse  is  better  provided  for  in  the  cor- 
rect military  seat  than  any  other,  and  the  rider,  appre- 
ciating the  security  afforded  by  it,  is  less  likely  to  degen- 
erate into  dependence  upon  reins  and  stirrups. 

The  military  seat  described  contains  all  the  elements 
essential  to  successful  riding,  either  for  pleasure  or  service. 
It  varies  but  little  in  the  regular  cavalry  of  all  military 
nations,  and  the  trooper  marching  upon  active  service, 
fully  equipped,  with  a  sure  prospect  of  hard  work  and 
scanty  provender,  cannot  vary  this  seat  with  the  same 
impunity  as  the  casual  rider  seeking  recreation  and 
exercise. 

The  European  seat  is  not  adapted  to  the  American 
saddle,  because  in  bringing  back  the  feet  and  elevating 
the  toes  the  leg  is  brought  against  the  cincha  strap  knot. 
The  position  of  the  leg  is  shown  approximately  (Plate 
XXXV),  but  with  steel  stirrups,  such  as  are  used  by  British 
and  European  troopers,  the  stirrup  leathers  must  be  worn 
much  shorter,  so  that  the  sole  of  the  foot  will  not  lose 
contact  with  the  tread. 

Confidence  in  the  saddle  depends  much  upon  the  first 
lessons.  As  soon  as  the  stirrups  are  crossed,  or  the  recruit 
mounted  on  the  blanket  and  surcingle  for  the  very  prosaic 
operation  of  being  shaken  into  a  good  seat,  everything 


260 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


possible  should  be  done  to  eliminate  faults.     Small,  gentle 
horses,  with  easy  gaits  should  be  selected  at  first,  but  when 

PLATE  XXXV. 


sufficient  confidence  has  been  acquired  to  perform  the 
mounted  exercises  prescribed  for  recruits,  horses  should  be 
changed  daily.  Care  should  always  be  taken  to  avoid 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  26 1 

having  beginners  hurt  or  frightened  by  horses  that  fall 
over  backwards,  bolt  or  kick ;  such  things  are  not  easily 
forgotten.  Many  a  good  jockey  has  been  ruined  by  the 
mental  impression  left  after  witnessing  a  bad  accident. 

After  acquiring  a  good  seat  recruits  will  be  ready  to 
take  their  chances  in  the  ranks;  however,  timid  men  should 
not  be  forced  too  fast  or  made  to  mount  vicious  horses,  but 
left  for  time  and  their  own  ambition  to  overcome  their 
fears. 

If  necessary  to  put  men  in  the  ranks  for  active  service 
before  preliminary  instruction  is  completed,  special  atten- 
tion must  be  paid  to  them,  else  they  will  become  confirmed 
in  their  faults  and  resent  later  instruction  because  of  having 
participated  in  a  campaign. 

The  herding  of  the  troop  horses  in  the  field  is  of  great 
assistance  in  making  bold  cross-country  riders  of  many 
otherwise  timid  men.  If  a  recruit  can  be  given  enough 
confidence  in  his  seat  and  horse  to  enable  him  to  stay  with 
a  stampeded  herd  until  the  horses  have  recovered  their 
senses  sufficiently  to  be  rounded  up,  there  need  be  no  fear 
of  his  not  learning  to  ride. 

A  trooper  whose  seat  is  insecure  almost  invariably 
makes  it  manifest  in  the  horse,  which  becomes  nervous 
and  uneasy  in  ranks.  The  insecure  seat  causes  the  rider 
to  constantly  jerk  or  pull  on  the  reins.  When  this  fault 
continues  it  is  often  necessary  to  put  the  rider  on  his  horse 
with  folded  arms,  and  have  another  trooper,  mounted,  to 
lead  the  horse  at  a  trot  around  the  hall  or  riding-ring  for 

nrHIVB.RSITTl 


262  HORSES,    SADDLES    AN7D    BRIDLES. 

prolonged  periods.  This  will  compel  the  offender  to  learn 
to  ride  without  depending-  upon  the  horse's  mouth  for 
support. 

There  is  a  vast  difference  between  good  riders  and 
accomplished  horsemen.  Many  of  the  former  possess  such 
secure  seats  that  the  meanest  of  brutes  cannot  dislodge 
them  from  the  saddle,  and  yet  they  may  be  unable  to  train 
or  to  appreciate  a  well  trained  saddle  horse. 

It  is  not  merely  the  ability  to  stick  on  which  should 
characterize  the  cavalryman.  He  should  by  all  means  be 
a  horseman,  and  the  more  accomplished  he  becomes  in 
that  line  the  more  valuable  he  will  be  as  an  example  to 
others  ;  increase  of  pride  and  self-respect  will  urge  him  on 
to  perfection  when  he  discovers  his  ability  is  recognized. 

The  average  trooper  requires  a  great  deal  of  individual 
instruction  to  prevent  him  from  contracting  habits  which 
spoil  horses.  It  is  a  most  noticeable  fact  that  when  a 
beginner  gets  tired  and  irritable  he  almost  invariably  jerks 
his  horse  to  punish  him  for  his  roughness.  If  the  horse 
stumbles  he  is  given  a  vicious  jerk  long  after  any  possi- 
bility of  sustaining  him  has  passed.  If  the  squad  be  at  a 
trot  the  horse  is  jerked  to  make  him  change  his  gait  while 
the  instructor's  back  is  turned. 

If  the  troop  is  ordered  to  trot,  there  will  always  be  one 
or  two  men  who  will  purposely  keep  their  horses  so  excited 
that  they  will  not  trot.  The  only  remedy  is  to  put  such 
men  on  steady  old  horses,  that  are  well  established  in  all 
the  gaits,  and  punish  them  for  any  repetition  of  the  offense. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  265. 

A  most  effective  way  to  do  this  is  to  put  such  men  on  the 
ring  to  ride,  bareback,  the  roughest  trotters  to  be  found. 

There  is  a  very  common  and  unsightly  fault  which  re- 
quires constant  attention.  This  is  the  habit  of  curving  the 
back  and  sitting  on  the  lower  part  of  the  spine.  This  is 
usually  accompanied  by  a  drawing  in  of  the  chest  and 
rounding  of  the  shoulders.  This  position  is  utterly  incom- 
patible with  correct  military  riding,  and  no  effort  should 
be  spared  to  correct  it.  If  it  becomes  apparent  that  ordi- 
nary admonition  has  no  effect,  it  may  be  corrected  by 
causing  the  trooper  to  hold  a  flat  stick  passed  behind  his 
shoulders,  the  ends  being  held  by  the  hands  opposite  the 
shoulders,  backs  to  the  rear.  This  of  course  necessitates 
the  horse  being  led  by  another  trooper. 

It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  a  few  hump-backed,  badly 
seated  riders  will  not  only  detract  from  the  appearance  of 
an  otherwise  fine  organization,  but  will  be  an  actual  detri- 
ment on  the  drill  ground  and  the  battlefield. 

The  military  seat  is  prescribed  with  minuteness  of  detail 
in  the  drill  regulations,  and  while  it  may  be  impossible  for 
all  men  to  conform  exactly  thereto,  it  should  be  insisted 
upon  in  the  cavalry  as  closely  as  possible.  Many  men  after 
acquiring  bad  habits  in  riding,  through  ignorance  or  stub- 
bornness, are  quite  apt  to  imagine  that  they  cannot  do  what 
is  desired  of  them. 

It  is  not  possible,  under  the  conditions  surrounding 
American  cavalry,  to  perfect  the  drill  of  all  horses,  as  is 
done  in  some  European  armies,  and  therefore  the  necessity 


1264  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

for  making  good  riders  of  the  men  becomes  paramount. 
After  a  single  raid  or  battle  many  raw  remounts  must  be 
•obtained,  and  if  a  trooper  has  to  depend  upon  being  sup- 
plied with  a  gentle,  well-trained  animal,  he  may  prove  a 
•detriment  rather  than  a  valuable  factor  in  his  squad  and 
troop.  A  good,  firm  seat  should  be  demanded,  and  any 
trooper  who  cannot  acquire  it  should  be  transferred  to  a 
•dismounted  arm  of  the  service. 

On  the  other  hand,  any  horse  which  persistently 
refuses  to  perform  his  work  in  a  gentle  and  reasonable 
way  under  the  guidance  of  careful  and  selected  troopers 
should  be  cast  out  just  as  if  he  were  hopelessly  diseased. 

A  horse  with  many  blemishes  and  defects  which  will 
do  his  work  honestly  in  ranks  will  render  more  efficient 
service  under  careful  treatment  than  a  sound  and  well-bred 
horse  which  keeps  a  trooper  always  engaged  in  trying  to 
keep  him  quiet,  and  to  preserve  his  own  seat.  In  addition 
to  worrying  his  rider,  a  nervous  horse  will  annoy  all  the 
men  and  horses  in  his  vicinity,  and  distract  their  attention 
from  the  performance  of  their  legitimate  duties.  A  horse 
should  not  be  condemned,  however,  until  it  is  assured  that 
.this  nervousness  is  not  caused  by  the  insecure  seat  of  the 
rider. 

Men  who  cannot  ride,  and  horses  which  cannot  be 
ridden,  are  useless  and  expensive  members  of  any  cavalry 
•organization. 


CHAPTER    XII. 


FORA  GE. 


Allowance  to  Public  Animals. —  Standard  Weights. —  Hay:  Upland;  Low- 
land; Wet  Meadow;  Good;  Inferior;  Mow-Burnt. —  Dust  in  Hay. — 
Haystacks. —  Grasses  in  General:  Timothy;  Red  Top;  Bermuda  Grass; 
Orchard  Grass;  Kentucky  Blue  Grass;  Clover;  Alfalfa;  Buffalo  Grass; 
Gramma  Grass;  Gietta  Grass;  Blue  Stem;  Blue  Joint;  Fodder  or 
Roughness. —  Weight  and  Measurement  of  Hay. —  Oats. —  Corn. — 
Barley. —  Bran. 


The  forage  supplied  animals  in  the  public  service  varies 
somewhat  with  locality.  Hay,  oats,  corn,  bran,  and  some- 
times barley,  are  the  usual  components  of  the  forage 
ration. 

The  allowance  is  ample  for  all  ordinary  purposes,  and 
where  grazing  is  abundant  and  opportunity  is  afforded  the 
animals  to  avail  themselves  of  it,  a  portion  of  the  allowance 
can  be  saved. 

The  amount  allowed  is  fourteen  pounds  of  hay  per  day 
for  each  horse  and  mule,  and  one  hundred  pounds  of  straw 
for  bedding  for  each  animal  per  month.  Grain  is  issued 
at  the  rate  of  nine  pounds  a  day  for  mules  and  twelve  for 
horses.  In  special  cases  of  exposure,  when  the  necessities 
of  the  service  demand  an  increase,  three  pounds  additional 
grain  may  be  authorized  for  each  animal  daily. 


Fig.  46.     (  Tunothy  ) 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  267 

When  from  any  cause  it  becomes  impracticable  to 
supply  full  forage  to  public  animals,  a  reduction  is  made 
by  order,  to  affect  all  alike. 

There  is  no  government  standard  weight  of  grain  per 
bushel.  Grain  is  usually  contracted  for  by  the  hundred- 
weight, and  hay  by  the  ton  of  2,240  pounds,  or  by  the 
hundred-weight. 

In  a  majority  of  States  the  weights  per  bushel  are  as 
follows:  Shelled  corn,  fifty-six ;  on  the  cob,  seventy; 
barley,  thirty-eight,  and  oats,  thirty-two  pounds ;  bran  not 
less  than  twenty  pounds. 

Hay  is  the  natural  food  of  the  horse,  and  upon  it  alone 
he  can  not  only  sustain  life  but  can  at  the  same  time  do  a 
fair  amount  of  work.  It  is  rich  in  materials  for  repairing 
waste  of  the  animal  tissues,  and  aids  digestion  of  the  more 
concentrated  foods.  It  loses  in  value  the  more  it  is  handled, 
because  of  the  breaking  off  of  the  tender  flowers  and  leaves, 
and  for  this  reason,  when  it  is  necessary  to  transport  it  to 
any  distance,  it  should  always  be  baled.  It  may  be  classed 
as  upland,  bottom,  or  wet  meadow  hay. 

Upland  hay,  which  is  the  best  for  horses,  is  known 
generally  by  the  fineness  and  firmness  of  the  stalks  and 
the  narrowness  of  the  leaves. 

Lowland  hay  is  known  by  the  coarseness  of  the  stalks 
and  by  the  broad  leaves  of  its  grasses.  The  hay,  though 
coarser,  is  softer,  less  firm  and  crisp  than  upland  hay.  The 
color  is  also  darker. 

Wet  meadow  hay  is  recognized  by  its  very  coarse,  often 


.  47.     (  Redtoj>.} 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  269 

reed-like  stalks,  and  by  the  broad,  flag-like  leaves,  and  also 
by  the  admixture  of  water-rushes  and  sedge. 

Good  hay  should  be  moderately  fine,  sweet-smelling, 
well  cured,  and  have  a  good,  fresh  color.  The  flowering 
heads  of  the  grasses  should  be  present.  A  proportion  of 
herbage  other  than  grass  is  desirable,  but  no  weeds.  Hay 
is  not  improved  by  keeping  over  one  season.  It  should  be 
cut  as  soon  as  it  matures  and  before  the  seeds  are  fully  ripe. 
Much  judgment  is  necessary  in  harvesting  and  storing  or 
stacking  hay.  Musty  hay  is  not  fit  for  horses,  and  great 
care  must  be  taken  to  properly  cure  it  before  it  is  put  in 
the  stack  or  barn,  in  order  that  there  should  be  no  danger 
from  heating. 

Hay  may  be  composed  of  the  very  best  varieties  of 
grasses  and  yet  be  inferior  because  cut  too  late  or  badly 
saved.  Hay  is  usually  cut  late  for  one  of  two  reasons:  the 
farmer  either  delays  in  a  dry  season,  in  hopes  of  securing 
a  heavier  yield,  or  the  season  may  be  so  wet  that  the  cut- 
ting is  deferred  for  fine  weather.  As  the  seeds  ripen  much 
of  the  nutritive  value  of  the  plant  passes  into  the  seeds, 
which  usually  fall  off  as  they  ripen,  and  are  only  valuable 
for  reproduction  of  their  kind ;  it  is  for  these  reasons  that 
hay  should  be  cut  while  the  plants  are  flowered  and  before 
seeds  form. 

Any  considerable  amount  of  rain  falling  on  hay  causes 
it  to  lose  its  characteristic  odor  and  to  have  a  lusterless, 
washed-out  color,  according  to  the  amount  of  exposure  to 
which  it  has  been  subjected. 


Fig.  48.     (  Bermuda  Crass.) 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  2/1 

Mow  burnt  hay  is  a  term,  applied  to  hay  which  has 
heated  in  the  stack,  either  from  being  stacked  before  thor- 
oughly cured  or  whilst  wet  with  dew  or  rain. 

Dust  in  hay  commonly  arises  from  the  hay  having 
become  slightly  damp,  and  afterwards  quickly  dried  with- 
out passing  into  the  stage  of  mouldiness.  The  apparent 
dust  is  the  debris  of  the  outer  coats  of  the  stems  and  leaves, 
which  decay  and  fall  off  in  the  process  of  heating  which 
has  taken  place  as  the  result  of  damp.  Dust  may  also 
arise  from  hay  having  been  overdried  before  being  stored, 
or  from  having  been  much  exposed  to  bad  weather.  In 
any  case  and  from  whatever  cause  it  arises,  it  must  be 
regarded  as  an  unfavorable  feature  in  hay. 

Hay  for  the  army  is  usually  delivered  baled,  or  in 
stacks.  Hay  baled  when  wet  will  rot  just  the  same  as 
loose  hay.  A  sufficient  number  of  bales  should  always  be 
opened  to  determine  its  condition,  unless  a  government 
agent  witnessed  the  baling. 

Haystacks  must  be  built  solidly,  neatly  topped,  and 
raked  from  the  peak  down,  to  facilitate  the  shedding  of 
water,  otherwise  the  rain  may  penetrate,  and  not  only  turn 
the  hay  black  and  rot  it  in  places,  but  may  cause  the  entire 
stack  to  become  musty  and  worthless. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  many  climates,  varieties 
of  soil,  geological  formations,  and  variations  in  degree  of 
moisture  and  dryness;  it  is  apparent,  therefore,  that  no  one 
species  of  grass  can  be  equally  well  adapted  to  growth  in 
all  parts  of  this  extensive  territory. 


Fig.  4Q.     (Diehard  Grass.} 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  273. 

Cultivated  grasses  were  once  wild,  and  are  still  so  in 
their  native  homes. 

The  grasses  in  general  are  of  greater  economic  import- 
ance as  furnishing  food  for  man  and  animals  than  all  other 
plants.  The  truth  of  this  will  be  recognized  when  it  is 
considered  that  all  the  staple  cereals,  as  wheat,  rye,  barley, 
rice,  oats,  etc.,  are  grasses.  They  have  been  cultivated  for 
a  long  time,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  were 
originally  selected  from  wild  forms  on  account  of  the  size, 
quantity  and  nutritive  value  of  their  grains. 

This  was  the  beginning  of  agriculture,  and  agriculture 
made  possible  the  numerical  increase  and  diffusion  of  the 
horse,  as  well  as  the  human  population. 

The  selection  and  cultivation  of  particular  kinds  of 
grasses  with  reference  to  their  grazing  qualities,  and  for 
the  production  of  hay,  is,  however,  a  comparatively  modern 
practice.  In  the  early  history  of  this  country,  while  the 
settlements  were  sparse,  the  natural  pasturage  was  abun- 
dant, but  in  the  course  of  time  the  farms  began  to  crowd 
each  other,  and  the  open  range  for  feeding  was  restricted. 

Perennial  rye  grass  began  to  be  cultivated  early  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  was  about  the  only  grass  so  cul- 
tivated for  nearly  one  hundred  years.  Timothy,  or  Herd's 
grass,  named  after  one  TIMOTHY  HERD,  its  discoverer,  was 
cultivated  in  America  about  1/20,  and  was  not  introduced 
into  England  for  more  than  forty  years  after.  This  has 
continued  to  be  a  popular  grass  for  hay  down  to  the  present 
time,  and  divides  in  favor  with  blue  grass,  orchard  grass 


FiS-  50      (  Kentucky  Blue  Grass.) 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND 

and  red  top,  according  to  locality,  and  is  frequently  found 
in  combination  with  clover.  The  number  of  species  of 
grass  now  catalogued  is  over  3,000. 

The  variety  of  plants  and  grasses  used  for  forage  is 
very  large,  and  consists  of  both  wild  and  cultivated  species. 

The  plains  lying  west  of  the  one  hundreth  meridian, 
together  with  much  mountainous  and  broken  interior 
country,  are  unreliable  for  the  ordinary  purposes  of  agri- 
culture, but  are  very  valuable  for  the  pasturage  afforded 
by  the  native  grasses,  which  are  celebrated  for  their  rich, 
nutritious  properties,  ability  to  withstand  dry  seasons,  and 
for  the  quality  of  self -drying  or  curing  on  the  stalk.  This 
quality  is  not  possessed  ordinarily  by  grasses  at  lower 
altitudes  than  3,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Many 
of  these  are  called  "bunch  grass,"  from  their  habits  of 
growth. 

It  would  require  a  separate  volume  to  describe  all  the 
grasses  and  plants  useful  for  feeding  to  domestic  animals. 
A  very  brief  reference  only  is  made  to  those  in  common 
use  for  animals  in  the  public  service,  and  which  officers  are 
called  upon  constantly  to  inspect  before  purchase  under 
contracts. 

Timothy. —  (Fig.  46.)  This  is  extensively  cultivated  as 
a  hay  crop  in  all  the  older  agricultural  sections  of  the 
country;  the  height  of  the  grass  varies  according  to  soil, 
from  one  to  three  feet ;  it  has  a  fine  seed  top ;  thrives  best 
on  moist,  loamy  soil,  of  medium  tenacity ;  is  not  suited  to 
light,  sandy  or  gravelly  soils ;  is  perennial,  and  yields  as 


Fig.  51.     (Alfalfa.} 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  2/7 

high  as  four  tons  to  the  acre.  It  is  often  sowed  with  clover, 
and  makes  the  best  hay  for  horses  of  all  known  grasses. 

Redtop. —  (Fig.  47.)  This  is  extensively  cultivated  as  a 
hay  crop ;  the  height  of  the  grass  varies  from  two  to  three 
feet ;  it  makes  a  firm  sod  ;  is  a  perennial  grass ;  it  thrives 
in  swampy  meadows  and  is  much  valued  by  dairymen.  It 
should  be  fed  close  if  pastured.  It  makes  hay  in  large 
quantities. 

Bermuda  Grass. —  (Fig.  48.)  This  is  the  most  valuable 
grass  in  the  South ;  it  spreads  rapidly  by  means  of  its  roots, 
and  is  difficult  to  eradicate  when  once  located;  its  chief 
value  is  for  summer  pasture  ;  it  is  much  used  as  a  lawn 
grass,  and  for  terraces  and  embankments;  it  is  affected  but 
little  by  droughts,  and  it  yields  from  a  ton  and  a  half  to 
two  tons  per  acre;  is  perennial. 

Orchard  Grass. — ( Fig.  49.)  This  is  a  very  popular  grass 
in  the  Eastern  and  Northern  States;  it  grows  to  a  height 
of  three  feet ;  is  perennial ;  is  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of 
soils,  climates  and  treatments,  making  good  winter  pas- 
turage; when  cut  for  hay  it  affords  a  heavy  aftermath;  it 
yields  on  medium  land  from  one  to  three  tons  of  excellent 
hay,  and  is  easily  cured  and  handled. 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass. — (Fig.  50.)  There  are  several  well 
marked  varieties  of  this  grass.  It  is  extensively  used  for 
pasturage ;  it  does  not  afford  so  heavy  and  profitable  a  hay 
crop  as  some  other  grasses;  it  attains  its  highest  luxuriance 
and  perfection  as  a  pasture  grass  over  the  limestone  for- 
mation of  middle  Tennessee  and  Kentucky;  it  accommo- 


'g-  5?-     (  Rujfalo   Grass.) 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  279 

dates  itself  to  a  great  variety  of  soils  and  climates,  and 
does  not  run  out  on  good  land;  no  reasonable  amount  of 
grazing  can  destroy  it;  it  is  a  perennial. 

Clover. — This  family  embraces  a  large  number  of  plants, 
varying  greatly  in  size  and  quality.  It  is  not  deemed 
necessary  to  illustrate  a  plant  so  familiar  in  Europe,  Asia 
and  America.  The  most  common  varieties  are  the  red 
and  the  small  white  or  Dutch  clover. 

Clover  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  cultivated 
grasses,  not  only  for  feed,  but  as  an  improver  of  the  soil. 
It  is  usually  sowed  in  conjunction  with  some  other  grass. 
It  lasts  several  years,  but  is  frequently  plowed  under  as  a 
fertilizer  before  it  runs  out. 

It  is  not  suited  alone  for  grazing,  except  for  a  few 
minutes  at  a  time,  as  it  is  apt  to  bloat  both  horses  and 
cattle.  It  yields  about  two  tons  or  more  to  the  acre,  and 
will  grow  best  on  clay  loam,  although  it  thrives  even  on 
sandy  soil. 

Alfalfa. — (Fig.  51.)  This  plant  is  known  in  Europe  as 
Lucerne,  and  has  been  cultivated  for  hay  since  ancient 
times.  It  is  not  so  hardy  as  red  clover,  and  not  adapted 
to  cold  climates.  It  thrives  best  in  a  permeable  soil,  and 
is  well  adapted  to,  and  reaches  its  highest  development  in 
the  warm  and  dry  climate  of  the  Southwest,  where  irriga- 
tion is  used.  Its  roots  penetrate  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  in 
the  soil;  it  is  best  used  as  a  soiling  plant,  but  is  much  used 
as  hay  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  New  Mexico,  Ari- 
zona, and  the  far  West  generally;  it  affords  two  or  three 


"  53      (Gramma  Grass.) 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  28 1 

cuttings  a  year,  yielding  two  or  three  tons  per  acre  at  each 
cutting,  and  lasts  without  replanting  for  some  years;  it  is 
not  well  adapted  to  transportation  owing  t©  brittleness. 

Buffalo  Grass. — (Fig.  52).  This  grass  is  extensively  spread 
over  all  the  region  known  as  the  Plains;  it  is  very  low,  the 
bulk  of  leaves  seldom  rising  more  than  three  or  four  inches 
above  the  ground ;  it  grows  in  extensive  tufts,  or  patches, 
and  spreads  largely  by  means  of  offshoots  similar  to  those 
of  the  Bermuda  grass;  it  formed  the  main  supply  of  food 
for  immense  herds  of  buffalo,  antelope,  and  other  game 
which  formerly  existed  in  the  West;  next  to  gramma  grass, 
it  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  plant  of  the  region  in  which 
it  thrives. 

Gramma  Grass. —  (Fig.  53.)  This  is  the  commonest  and 
best  grass  in  the  far  West ;  it  growrs  in  small,  roundish 
patches,  the  foliage  being  in  a  dense  cushion,  like  moss ; 
the  flowering  stalks  seldom  rise  over  a  foot  in  height,  and 
bear  near  the  top  one  or  two  spikes  each  about  an  inch 
long,  standing  out  at  right  angles;  when  much  grazed  these 
spikes  are  eaten  off  and  only  the  mats  of  leaves  are  observ- 
able ;  it  is  highly  nutritious,  and  stock  of  all  kinds  prefer 
it  to  any  grass  growing  with  it ;  it  dries  and  cures  on  the 
ground  so  as  to  retain  its  nutritive  properties  in  the  winter. 
For  many  years  after  troops  occupied  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico  this  grass  was  cut  with  hoes  and  used  as  hay,  with 
roots  and  dirt  hanging  to  it ;  the  horses  kept  strong  and 
fat  on  it. 


Fig.  54.     (Gietta   Grass.) 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDEES.  283 

Gietta  Grass. —  (Fig.  54.)  This  is  one  of  the  character- 
istic grasses  of  the  arid  districts  of  Texas,  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona,  where  it  is  sometimes  erroneously  called  black 
gramma.  It  is  found  sparingly  in  Colorado  and  Utah.  It 
is  relished  by  cattle  and  horses,  and  is  next  to  the  gramma 
in  value  in  those  regions.  Like  the  gramma  grass,  it  can 
only  be  cut  with  hoes,  knives  or  scythes. 

Blue  Stem,  or  Western  Blue  Joint. —  (Fig.  55.)  This 
species  prevails  on  the  plains  from  Texas  to  Montana,  and 
is  well  known  to  stockmen.  It  is  generally  of  a  light,, 
bluish-green  color.  It  is  the  most  prized  of  the  native 
grasses,  and  wherever  it  occupies  a  large  area  exclusively, 
as  it  frequently  does,  it  is  cut  for  hay.  It  does  not  yield  a 
great  bulk,  but  its  quality  is  unsurpassed.  In  the  valleys 
and  along  the  streams  it  frequently  forms  large  patches, 
and  grows  thickly  and  abundantly.  This  grass  extends 
into  the  mountain  region,  and  is  common  in  Colorado  and 
New  Mexico. 

Blue  Joint. —  (Fig.  56.)  This  is  a  stout,  tall  grass, 
growing  chiefly  in  wet,  boggy  ground  or  moist  meadows; 
its  favorite  situation  is  in  cool,  elevated  regions.  It  pre- 
vails in  all  the  northern  portions  of  the  United  States  and 
in  British  America;  in  these  districts  it  is  one  of  the  best 
and  most  productive  of  the  indigenous  grasses.  It  varies 
much  in  luxuriance  of  foliage,  according  to  location;  it 
grows  from  three  to  five  feet  high,  with  leaves  a  foot  long. 
While  not  equal  to  some  upland  grasses,  it  gives  a  larger 


SS-     (Blue  Stem,  or  Western  Blue  Joint.) 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  285 

yield,  makes  very  good  hay,  and  is  much  relished  by  horses 
and  cattle;  is  perennial. 

In  addition  to  those  mentioned,  the  entire  area  of  the 
United  States,  particularly  the  Western  plains  and  Rocky 
Mountain  regions,  is  more  or  less  covered  with  various 
kinds  of  bunch  grass,  all  very  good  for  pasturage,  and 
many  for  hay,  except  the  annuals,  which,  as  a  rule,  do  not 
seem  to  have  sufficient  nutritive  qualities  for  horses  en- 
gaged in  marching  or  heavy  work.  This  refers  particularly 
to  grasses  which  spring  up  after  rains,  and  grow  rapidly 
to  great  height  in  a  few  weeks. 

It  would  require  a  volume  to  properly  describe  and 
discuss  the  various  native  grasses  and  their  relative  merits. 
Where  there  is  any  choice  of  grasses  the  best  should 
be  insisted  upon  for  hay.  What  is  considered  good  in 
one  locality  is  regarded  with  contempt  in  others.  The 
government  is  frequently  compelled  to  accept  inferior  hay 
or  nothing.  Wild  mesquite  beans  were  at  one  time  re- 
ceived as  forage  in  the  absence  of  other  available  food  in 
Arizona,  and  the  horses  got  along  very  well,  and  continued 
to  do  their  regular  work. 

Among  the  common  grasses  used  for  hay  may  be  men- 
tioned white  or  tall  gramma,  crow-foot,  various  reed 
grasses,  wild  oats,  and  several  kinds  of  bunch  grass. 

During  the  Civil  War  the  animals  were  frequently 
dependent  upon  the  broad  leaves  of  the  cornstalk,  called 
" fodder"  or  " roughness"  in  the  South.  When  pulled  off 


S&-     (Blue  Joint.) 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  287 

at  the  right  time  and  properly  cared  for  it  makes  a  palat- 
able forage,  but  is  not  to  be  compared  with  good  timothy 
or  other  hay. 

Cured  hay  from  the  grasses  herein  described  varies 
greatly  in  weight  per  cubic  foot.  Officers  are  continually 
required  to  approximate  the  amount  of  hay  in  stacks  at 
various  military  stations,  and  the  only  correct  method  of 
determining  this  with  any  approach  to  accuracy,  is  to  cut 
from  the  stack  a  sufficiently  large  cubic  section  to  obtain  a 
fair  average  of  the  stack,  and  weigh  it  so  as  to  get  the 
weight  of  a  cubic  foot ;  the  measured  cubical  contents  of 
the  stack  multiplied  by  the  actual  weight  of  a  cubic  foot, 
will  give  the  weight  of  the  stack. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  top  is  lighter  per  cubic 
foot  than  the  lower  portion  of  the  stack,  which  has  been 
well  packed  as  the  stack  was  built  up.  Allowance  must 
also  be  made  for  the  ends. 

It  will  usually  be  found  more  satisfactory  to  estimate 
the  volume  of  the  solid  stack  separately  from  the  volume 
of  the  lighter  and  peaked  top.  Obtain  the  weight  of  a 
cubic  foot  of  each  and  multiply  by  the  volume,  adding  the 
two  results  together  for  the  total  weight.  This  does  not 
require  much  time  or  labor,  and  is  infinitely  preferable  to 
guess  work. 

Oats  are  the  best  of  all  grains  for  giving  animals  mus- 
cular tissue,  and  are  easily  digested.  They  should  be 
clean,  plump  and  full  of  flour,  and  have  a  metallic  luster. 


288  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

It  is  not  material  whether  they  are  white  or  black  varieties, 
but  they  should  be  free  from  all  appearance  or  odor  of 
mustiness,  mouldiness  or  sprouting,  for  these  defects  are 
productive  of  serious  digestive  disorders.  In  a  sample  of 
oats  the  grains  should  be  about  the  same  size,  and  there 
should  be  no  admixture  of  small  seeds  of  grass  and  weeds. 
Oats  containing  small  pebbles,  grit  and  dirt,  even  if  other- 
wise good,  should  be  rejected  until  cleaned. 

New  oats  have  almost  a  glazed  appearance,  which  is 
lost  in  old  oats,  and  the  former  have  a  fresh,  earthy  odor, 
which  disappears  in  the  latter.  The  taste  of  the  new  oat 
is  fresh  and  somewhat  milky.  The  beards  are  well  defined 
in  new  oats,  but  in  old  oats  they  are  knocked  off  by  the 
friction  of  handling,  being  very  brittle. 

Corn  is  one  of  the  best  of  foods  for  producing  fat,  but 
that  is  seldom  desirable  in  saddle  horses.  It  is  good  in 
cold  climates  on  account  of  its  heat  producing  qualities. 
In  warm  weather  it  readily  undergoes  fermentation,  causing 
derangements  of  digestion,  which  is  a  prolific  source  of  dis- 
ease and  death  in  horses.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in 
early  spring.  It  is  fed  whole  or  crushed,  the  latter  being 
preferable,  particularly  for  old  horses.  It  should  not  be 
fed  mixed  with  other  grains. 

Barley  is  seldom  received  by  the  government,  except 
in  the  Southwest,  where  it  grows  to  perfection  under  irriga- 
tion. The  animals  there  thrive  upon  it  and  keep  in  good, 
hard  flesh  under  heavy  work.  It  is  frequently  threshed 
with  horses  or  sheep,  and  consequently  very  poorly  cleaned. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  289- 

Bran  is  a  very  valuable  component  of  the  forage  ration. 
It  is  rich  in  muscle -making  constituents,  prevents  consti- 
pation when  given  as  a  mash,  is  slow  to  ferment,  easy  to 
digest,  makes  good  poultices,  and  is  easy  to  transport, 
though  bulky.  It  supplements,  but  does  not  take  the  place 
of  grain. 


CHARTER    XIII. 


STABLE  MANAGEMENT. 


Herding.  —  Stables.  —  Ventilation.  — Water.  —  Feeding. —  Stable  Routine. — 
Grooming. —  Shoeing.  —  Nursing  Sick  Horses:  Discharges;  Hand 
Rubbing;  Sponging;  Hot  and  Cold  Applications ;  Steaming;  Poultices; 
Bandages;  Pulse;  Temperature;  Blankets;  Removing  Shoes;  Balls; 
Drenches;  Injections.  —  Supply  Table  of  Medicines.  —  Instruments. — 
Explanation  of  Medicines. — Prescriptions. 


In  American  cavalry  garrisons  the  horses  are  usually 
housed  at  night,  and  herded  when  not  in  use  during  the 
day,  not  only  for  grazing  but  also  in  order  to  keep  up  the 
habit  of  coming  quietly  to  the  picket  line,  which  is  so 
-essential  for  frontier  service.  The  stables  are  frame  build- 
ings at  the  northern,  and  open  sheds  at  the  extreme 
southern  stations.  A  few  of  the  new  and  more  permanent 
stations  are  provided  with  brick  stables  of  modern  design. 

Doubtless  the  thorough  ventilation  of  the  frame  stables 
and  sheds  is  the  cause  of  the  general  good  health  of  the 
horses.  Pure  air  in  abundance  is  the  one  thing  insisted 
upon  for  animals  which  may  be  called  for  at  any  moment 
to  make  a  ride  for  life.  To  carry  this  idea  out  completely, 
•open  corrals  or  yards  are  usually  attached  to  stables,  and 
when  not  otherwise  provided  for  the  horses  are  turned 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  29! 

loose,  except  on  very  stormy  days.  There  is  none  of  that 
senseless  hardening  of  horses,  so-called,  by  exposing  them 
unnecessarily  to  extremes  of  weather,  nor  on  the  other 
hand  any  hot-house  coddling. 

To  accomplish  good  results  constant  personal  super- 
vision is  necessary;  in  no  instance  is  the  attention  to  duty 
or  neglect  of  it  so  quickly  reflected  as  in  the  condition  of 
cavalry  horses.  In  the  field  advantage  must  be  taken  of 
every  circumstance  which  redounds  to  their  benefit.  None 
but  those  who  have  had  experience  in  such  matters  can 
appreciate  the  difficulty  encountered  in  keeping  up  the  con- 
dition of  horses  subjected  to  irregular  hours,  short  rations, 
and  carrying  heavy  weights. 

In  garrison  the  stable  should  be  kept  as  even  in  tem- 
perature as  possible  by  opening  or  closing  doors  and 
windows.  During  violent  storms  or  " blizzards'*  in  cold 
climates  it  may  be  necessary  to  close  everything  but  the 
top  ventilators  to  prevent  suffering.  As  soon  as  the  storm 
has  ceased  thorough  ventilation  should  be  resumed.  The 
best  time  to  test  the  ventilation  or  purity  of  air  is  at 
morning  stables  when  the  doors  are  first  opened.  The 
stables  are  seldom  closed  in  summer,  the  doors  being 
replaced  by  bars. 

While  ample  ventilation  is  very  necessary,  draughts 
should  be  avoided.  Provision  should  be  made  to  let  in  a 
gradual  and  constant  supply  of  fresh  air,  and  also  for  the 
-egress  of  the  foul  air  which  rises. 

Ventilating  shafts  should  be  constructed  in  the  roof, 


2Q2  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

and  the  number  of  these  should  correspond  with  the  size 
of  the  stable  and  number  of  animals  assigned  to  it.  In 
addition  to  these  ventilators,  the  space  between  the  wall 
plate  and  the  roof  is  often  left  uncovered  in  mild  climates. 
There  should  be  openings  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  square 
inches,  covered  with  grating,  left  at  frequent  intervals 
along  the  wall,  a  few  inches  from  the  floor. 

All  ventilators  should  be  arranged  so  that  the  stable 
men  can  close  them  on  either  side,  according  to  the  state 
of  the  wind  and  weather;  it  should  seldom  be  necessary  to 
close  them  on  both  sides  at  the  same  time.  When  hollow 
walls  are  used  the  small  openings,  with  gratings,  may  be 
arranged  so  that  the  one  on  the  outside  will  be  above  the 
one  on  the  inside,  which  will  prevent  all  direct  draughts. 

Although  not  so  important  as  ventilation,  the  lighting 
of  the  stable  should  receive  careful  attention.  As  far  as 
possible  the  light  supplied  by  windows  should  be  admitted 
so  as  not  to  produce  a  glare  directly  in  front  of  the  horses. 
If  the  arrangements  are  such  that  it  is  necessary  to  have 
the  horses  face  the  windows  the  window  frames  should  be 
put  in  lengthwise  of  the  wall  and  up  above  the  heads  of 
the  horses. 

Ventilation  should  never  be  dependent  upon  the  open- 
ing and  closing  of  windows,  but  they  should  all  be  arranged 
so  that  this  can  be  easily  done. 

The  watering  of  the  horses  requires  careful  supervision 
to  insure  that  they  are  watered  at  the  proper  times  and 
are  never  hurried  while  drinking.  Horses  should  be 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  293 

watered  three  times  a  day  in  warm  weather.  When  turned 
loose,  free  access  to  water  should  be  had  at  all  times.  In 
winter  twice  a  day  is  as  often  as  a  horse  will  drink,  as  a 
rule.  The  first  watering  should  be  several  hours  after 
sunrise  and  the  last  just  before  being  tied  in  for  the  night. 
The  proper  time  to  water  a  horse  is  before  and  not  imme- 
diately after  feeding. 

In  civil  communities  horses  are  usually  fed  three  times 
a  day,  but  in  the  army  feeding  in  the  morning  and  evening 
is  the  general  rule.  Hay  and  grain  are  fed  in  the  evening 
and  grain  in  the  morning.  When  the  animals  are  not  in 
use  the  regular  ration  is  supplemented  by  as  much  grazing 
as  season  and  locality  permit.  When  bran  is  fed  it  is  given 
as  a  mash  and  never  mixed  with  whole  grain. 

The  stomach  of  the  horse  is  comparatively  small,  and 
should  not  be  distended  by  large  feeds  at  long  intervals ; 
however,  twice  a  day  is  all  that  it  is  practicable  to  feed  in 
campaign. 

The  inclination  to  eat  depends  upon  climate,  work,  and 
the  nature  and  quality  of  the  horse's  food.  In  many  cases 
of  sickness,  health  is  restored  by  a  change  of  diet,  but  as 
a  sign  of  health,  the  horse's  appetite  is  not  to  be  entirely 
relied  upon.  When  horses  are  sick  they  should  receive 
their  food  in  small  quantities,  and  if  not  completely  eaten, 
what  remains  should  be  removed  before  the  next  feed  is 
given. 

After  the  horses  have  finished  their  morning  feed  of 
grain  they  should  be  tied  on  the  picket  line,  where  they 

or 


2Q4  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

are  to  be  groomed.  The  stable  men  at  once  go  to  work 
removing  the  manure  and  shaking  up  the  bedding.  Such 
of  the  bedding  as  is  too  much  soiled  for  further  use  is  put 
with  the  manure;  the  balance  is  forked  over  and  lightly 
piled  in  the  front  end  of  the  stalls.  This  gives  the  earth 
floors  a  chance  to  dry  out,  for  cavalry  stables  on  the  frontier 
are  seldom  provided  with  drains;  in  any  event  the  stall 
will  be  more  or  less  damp  from  the  urination  of  the  horse 
over  night. 

As  soon  as  the  stalls  have  all  been  cleaned  out  the 
manure  is  loaded  on  the  troop  wagon  and  hauled  to  the 
place  designated  as  the  dumping  ground.  The  hay  is 
next  hauled  and  distributed  in  the  stable  at  places  con- 
venient for  putting  it  in  the  mangers.  The  straw  for 
bedding  is  then  distributed,  and  the  stable  men  begin  at 
one  end,  and  working  on  both  sides  proceed  to  arrange 
the  beds. 

The  morning  feed  of  grain  is  usually  put  in  the  feed 
boxes  at  the  first  call  for  reveille,  the  feed  cart  being  taken 
down  the  center  of  the  stable  while  the  stable  orderlies 
dip  out  the  grain  in  ration  boxes  made  to  hold  one  feed. 
The  grain  for  the  evening  feed  is  put  in  the  boxes  at 
afternoon  stables. 

The  officer  attending  stables  inspects  the  hay,  grain 
and  bedding  of  the  horses.  If  the  forage  is  musty,  dirty, 
or  otherwise  unfit  for  the  animals,  he  takes  the  proper 
steps  for  obtaining  a  fresh  supply  without  unnecessary 
delay.  Should  the  bedding  be  too  much  soiled  he  directs. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  2Q£ 

its  removal,  and  causes  fresh  straw  or  hay  to  be  littered 
down.  The  stalls  should  be  inspected  occasionally  to  see 
that  they  are  kept  level,  and  that  holes  pawed  out  are 
refilled. 

Above  all  other  considerations  next  to  pure  air,  dryness 
should  be  insisted  upon  about  the  stables.  Horses  prefer 
warmth  and  dryness,  and  putting  them  in  damp  stables  is 
apt  to  cause  debility  and  disease. 

Grooming  is  essential  to  the  general  health  and  condi- 
tion of  the  domesticated  horse,  and  is  not  altogether  for 
appearances.  With  hard  work  and  high  feeding  the  excre- 
tion of  worn-out  materials  through  the  skin  is  very  great; 
hence  artificial  means  are  necessary  to  remove  the  refuse. 

Grooming  removes  from  the  skin  those  particles  of  per- 
spiration, dust  and  dirt  which  would  otherwise  impede  and 
clog  the  free  action  of  the  sweat  and  oil  glands.  It  also 
removes  the  scurf  or  worn-out  cells  which  are  no  longer 
required  on  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and  which  would,  when 
cemented  together  by  particles  of  sweat,  add  to  the  obstruc- 
tion of  the  glands.  The  grooming  should  take  place  out- 
side of  the  stable  when  the  weather  permits,  to  avoid  filling 
the  mangers  with  dust. 

The  thorough  cleaning  of  the  skin  of  the  horse  is  an 
operation  requiring  both  skill  and  hard  labor.  To  produce 
the  greatest  effect  with  the  least  expenditure  of  power  and 
in  the  shortest  time,  the  trooper  should  aid  his  muscular 
strength  with  his  weight.  He  should  stand  well  away 
from  the  horse  and  lean  his  weight  on  the  brush,  which 


296  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

will  thus  do  its  work  more  effectually  than  if  operated  by 
muscular  strength  alone.  The  working  of  the  brush  should 
follow  the  natural  direction  of  the  hair.  The  currycomb 
should  be  used  as  little  as  possible,  and  principally  to  loosen 
accumulations  of  mud. 

When  a  horse  is  worked,  and  grooming  is  neglected, 
he  soon  loses  flesh  and  deteriorates  in  health;  actual 
disease  of  the  skin  may  follow,  for  the  presence  of  para- 
sitical insects  is  induced  by  filth,  and  when  not  disturbed 
by  grooming  they  breed  rapidly. 

Horses  should  not  be  washed,  even  on  the  legs,  except 
in  warm  weather,  to  remove  caked  mud ;  they  should  be 
at  once  dried  and  groomed  thoroughly.  Horses  should, 
under  no  circumstances,  be  allowed  to  dry  by  evaporation. 

Each  morning  as  soon  as  the  horses  are  tied  on  the 
picket  line  the  blacksmith  selects  those  which  require 
shoeing,  and  separates  them  from  the  others  so  that  they 
may  not  be  turned  out  on  herd. 

At  many  posts  where  the  ground  is  free  from  stones 
horses  are  not  shod  continuously,  but  a  proportion  are  left 
without  shoes  in  order  to  let  their  feet  spread  out  and 
assume  a  natural  shape.  This  practice  saves  many  horses 
from  suffering  with  contracted  feet. 

Shoes  are  kept  fitted  for  each  horse  at  all  times,  for 
tests  made  on  service  show  conclusively  that  horses  cannot 
stand  hard  field  service  with  unshod  hoofs. 

In  cold  climates  ice  nails  are  kept  on  hand,  or  shoes  are 
fitted  with  calks  for  such  horses  as  are  likely  to  go  on 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  297 

service.  After  horses  are  shod  for  winter  with  sharp  calks 
it  is  dangerous  to  turn  them  loose,  and  even  at  the  picket 
line  they  must  be  watched  constantly  to  prevent  serious 
injuries  from  kicking. 

Shoeing  is  regulated  in  the  army  by  the  following 
order,  which  cannot  be  too  closely  followed : 

"  In  preparing  the  horse's  foot  for  the  shoe  do  not  touch 
with  the  knife  the  frog,  sole  or  bars.  In  removing  surplus 
growth  of  that  part  of  the  foot  which  is  the  'seat  of  the 
shoe,'  use  the  cutting  pinchers  and  rasp,  and  not  the  knife. 
The  shoeing  knife  may  be  used,  if  necessary,  in  fitting  the 
toe  clip. 

"'  Opening  the  heels,'  or  making  a  cut  into  the  angle 
of  the  wall  at  the  heel,  must  not  be  allowed.  The  rasp 
may  be  used  upon  this  part  of  the  foot  when  necessary,  and 
the  same  applies  to  the  pegs.  No  cutting  with  a  knife  is 
permitted  ;  the  rasp  alone  when  necessary. 

"  Flat-footed  horses  should  be  treated  as  the  necessity 
of  each  case  may  require. 

"In  forging  the  shoe  to  fit  the  foot,  be  careful  that  the 
shoe  is  fitted  to  and  follows  the  circumference  of  the  foot 
clear  round  to  the  heels.  The  heels  of  the  shoe  should  not 
be  extended  back  straight  and  outside  of  the  walls  at  the 
heels  of  the  horse's  foot,  as  is  frequently  done.  Care  must 
be  used  that 'the  shoe  is  not  fitted  too  small,  the  outer  sur- 
face of  the  walls  being  then  rasped  down  to  make  the  foot 
short  to  suit  the  shoe,  as  often  happens. 

"  Heat  may  be  used  in  preparing  and  shaping  the  shoe, 
but  the  hot  shoe  must  not  be  applied  to  the  horse's  foot 
under  any  circumstances.  Make  the  upper  or  foot  surface 
of  the  shoe  perfectly  flat,  so  as  to  give  a  level  bearing.  A 
shoe  with  a  concave  ground  surface  should  be  used." 

All  officers  cannot  be  expected  to  become  veterinarians, 
but  each  one  should  familiarize  himself  with  such  injuries 


298  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

and  diseases  as  occur  with  frequency  in  cavalry  stables, 
and  acquire  a  knowledge  of  such  simple  remedies  as  can 
be  administered  by  the  stablemen  in  the  absence  of  a  vet- 
erinary surgeon. 

It  should  at  all  times  be  kept  in  mind  that  prevention 
of  disease  is  more  creditable  than  a  successful  cure,  and 
that  when  disease  or  injury  does  come,  good  nursing  will 
in  most  cases  avail  as  much,  if  not  more,  than  medicine. 

As  a  rule  the  attachment  which  exists  between  the 
troopers  and  favorite  horses  will  insure  the  latter  good 
treatment,  but  there  are  always  a  few  rough,  vicious  or 
unappreciative  animals  whose  condemnation  or  death  would 
not  cast  any  gloom  over  the  command ;  these  latter  will 
require  the  attention  of  officers  to  prevent  their  being 
neglected. 

There  are  many  minor  ailments  to  which  cavalry  horses 
are  subject  which  may  be  treated  in  the  stalls  or  at  the 
picket  line,  but  for  an  animal  whose  sickness  affects  the 
nerves  or  lungs,  rest  and  quiet  are  essential.  To  this  end, 
if  in  garrison,  a  box  stall  about  twelve  feet  square  should 
be  provided  for  each  troop;  this  will  remove  the  sick  horse 
from  all  the  excitement  which  is  bound  to  exist  about  a 
large  stable,  and  give  him  room  to  turn  around  and  assume 
whatever  position  may  seem  restful  to  him.  The  box  stall 
should  be  separated  from  the  main  building  if  practicable; 
if  not^it  can  be  partitioned  off  in  the  stable,  so  that  it  can 
be  darkened  if  necessary.  The  walls  should  be  white- 
washed and  the  floor  covered  with  clean  straw. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  299 

Fresh  water  should  be  provided  in  a  bucket,  for  a 
feverish  horse  will  frequently  help  himself  if  left  alone. 
In  this  way  some  medicines  can  be  administered,  but  the 
sense  of  smell  is  so  acute  in  horses  that  they  may  refuse 
water  if  there  is  any  strong  odor  of  medicine  attaching 
to  it. 

The  appetite  of  a  sick  horse  is  often  very  capricious, 
and  during  fever  he  may  refuse  food  altogether.  Place 
before  him,  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  as  great  a  variety 
of  food  fit  for  his  consumption  as  can  be  obtained.  Un- 
eaten food  should  be  removed  before  it  becomes  sour. 

When  not  prevented  by  swollen  head  or  neck,  a  horse 
discharging  at  the  nostrils  should,  as  a  rule,  be  fed  from  a 
bucket  placed  near  the  ground,  as  the  depending  position 
of  the  head  will  be  more  comfortable  to  an  animal  in  such 
a  condition.  The  bucket  should  be  used  for  no  other  pur- 
pose, and  should  be  cleaned  carefully  after  use.  All  wood 
work  should  be  particularly  cleaned  where  any  particles  of 
a  suspicious  discharge  have  been  thrown  or  lodged. 

Hand  rubbing  of  the  legs  is  very  useful  in  restoring 
circulation,  as  well  as  for  the  purpose  of  removing  any 
swelling  arising  from  want  of  exercise. 

Sponging  the  nostrils  and  dock  are  refreshing  to  the 
animal,  and  the  sheath  should  be  frequently  and  well 
cleaned  when  the  weather  permits.  Care  is  necessary  to 
prevent  injury  by  the  finger  nails,  a  slight  scratch  often 
producing  much  swelling. 

Hot    fomentations  in    cases   of   sprains,    and    to   allay 


3OO  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

inflammation,  are  very  beneficial.  To  obtain  good  results 
they  must  be  continued  for  a  long  time,  say  for  two  hours. 
The  water  should  not  be  too  hot;  it  should  be  at  such  a 
temperature  that  the  hand  can  bear  it  comfortably.  Allow 
the  water  to  trickle  over  the  inflamed  parts.  Flannel  or 
woolen  bandages  may  be  wrapped  around  the  parts,  and 
kept  wet  with  warm  water;  they  will  retain  the  heat  for 
some  time.  Fomentations  should  be  repeated  three  times 
within  twenty-four  hours,  and  between  these  operations  the 
parts  should  be  warmly  covered  to  keep  out  the  cold. 

Cold  applications  harden  and  brace  up  the  parts  to 
which  they  are  applied;  they  also  reduce  heat.  They  are 
very  useful  in  cases  of  bruises,  swellings  and  sprains,  par- 
ticularly after  the  inflammation  has  been  reduced  by  hot 
fomentations.  In  some  cases  a  rubber  tube  arranged  to 
allow  cold  water  to  trickle  over  a  specific  part  or  surface  is 
of  great  assistance  in  hastening  recovery.  Cold  water 
bandages  are  the  most  common  applications,  owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  getting  stable  men  to  properly  apply  hot 
fomentations. 

Steaming  may  be  done  with  a  nose  bag,  or  a  sack 
arranged  for  the  purpose.  Place  clean  hay  in  the  bottom, 
and  pour  boiling  water  over  it,  and  then  hang  the  bag  on 
the  horse's  head  so  that  the  steam  will  go  up  his  nostrils. 
Chloroform,  carbolic  acid,  etc.,  are  sometimes  added  by 
veterinary  surgeons  to  afford  immediate  relief  in  certain 
affections. 

Poultices  are  often  of  great  service,  but  they  are  diffi- 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  30 1 

cult  to  apply.  They  should  be  inclosed  in  'Some  strong 
but  thin  material  in  order  to  prevent  the  substances  from 
which  they  are  made  becoming  entangled  with  hair.  They 
should  not  be  left  on  long  enough  to  dry,  as  they  then 
irritate  instead  of  soothe. 

Bandages  of  cotton  or  wool  are  very  useful  for  holding 
poultices  in  position,  closing  wounds,  compressing  specific 
parts,  and  for  giving  warmth  to  the  legs.  Roller  bandages 
are  used  on  the  legs,  but  the  size  and  shape  of  others 
depend  on  their  use.  It  is  at  times  not  an  easy  matter 
to  keep  a  bandage  in  position  by  ordinary  means.  The 
difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  preparing  some  form  of 
harness  to  which  bandage  strings  may  be  attached,  varying 
it  according  to  the  part  of  the  body  or  limbs  to  be  covered. 

The  pulse  in  the  horse  is  an  important  guide  in  deter- 
mining his  state  of  health.  It  indicates  the  number,  force 
and  regularity,  or  irregularity,  of  the  heart's  action,  and 
the  quantity  of  blood  sent  forth  at  each  beat.  As  a  rule, 
the  number  of  pulsations  corresponds  with  the  heart's  con- 
tractions. 

The  pulse  of  a  healthy  horse  varies  from  thirty-four  to 
thirty-eight.  It  is  generally  quicker  in  young  horses  than 
aged  ones,  and  also  quicker  in  well-bred  than  in  heavyr 
cold-blooded  animals. 

The  most  convenient  places  for  taking  the  pulse  are 
the  arteries  under  the  jaw  and  inside  the  fore  leg  above 
the  fetlock  joint.  It  may  be  taken  by  placing  the  ear  at 
the  left  side  of  the  chest.  The  slightest  excitement  when 


302  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

a  horse  is  sick  will  cause  an  alteration  in  the  pulse.  The 
animal  should  therefore  be  approached  very  quietly,  and 
soothed  for  a  minute  or  two  before  applying  the  finger  to 
the  artery.  The  fore  and  middle  finger  should  be  placed 
on  the  artery  in  a  transverse  direction,  and  not  obliquely. 

A  strong  and  full  pulse  characterizes  health,  and  is 
seldom  found  when  the  animal  is  in  any  morbid  state. 

A  weak  and  small  pulse  is  indicative  of  great  debility, 
especially  if  the  pulse  is  easily  extinguished  by  pressure. 

A  very  slow  pulse  indicates  probable  disease  or  injury 
of  the  brain  or  spinal  cord. 

The  number  of  pulsations  per  minute  under  different 
circumstances  in  disease  varies  from  twenty  to  one  hun- 
dred, or  even  more. 

Temperature  in  the  case  of  a  horse  is  ascertained  by 
use  of  a  small  clinical  thermometer,  which  is  inserted  in 
the  rectum  and  allowed  to  remain  about  five  minutes.  The 
ordinary  temperature  in  good  health  is  about  99°  F.  It 
should  be  taken  without  exciting  the  horse  by  removing 
blankets  or  moving  him  about.  In  continued  illness,  where 
the  temperature  is  an  important  consideration,  it  should  be 
taken  at  the  same  hours  every  day. 

During  the  prevalence  of  influenza  or  other  epizootic 
disease  in  stables,  it  pays  to  take  the  temperature  of  all 
horses  daily;  a  rise  of  a  few  degrees,  which  indicates  the 
approaching  disease,  is  sufficient  to  cause  the  horse  to  be 
withdrawn  from  work,  for  this  prompt  action  will  often 
cause  the  disease  to  run  a  milder  course.  Work  in  the 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  303 

incipient  stages  of  these  diseases  often  causes  them  to 
assume  a  fatal  form. 

When  the  condition  of  the  horse  requires  artificial 
covering  the  blankets  should  be  fastened  on  loosely.  They 
should  be  removed,  shaken,  and  aired  during  the  day,  the 
horse  being  covered  with  others  temporarily  if  necessary. 

In  cases  of  serious  or  prolonged  sickness  the  shoes 
should  be  removed  from  the  horse. 

Artificial  inflammation  is  often  resorted  to  as  a  stimu- 
lant to  parts  deficient  in  vitality,  or  for  the  relief  of  inflam- 
mation in  internal  organs.  This  artificial  inflammation 
is  often  needed  to  rouse  to  new  and  healthier  action  parts 
which  have  become,  through  disease,  deficient  in  vital 
energy.  The  healing  process  in  many  ulcerative  diseases 
is  very  sluggish  and  languid,  and  the  effect  of  induced 
inflammation  is  often  to  rouse  not  only  the  part  affected, 
but  all  the  neighboring  structures  to  new  and  healthy 
action. 

This  treatment  may  vary  from  the  light,  stimulating 
friction  produced  by  hand  rubbing  the  parts  or  a  mild 
mustard  plaster,  to  a  strong  cantharides  blister  or  a  seton. 

By  seton  is  meant  the  introduction  of  a  tape  or  string, 
intended  to  act  on  the  deep  seated  tissues  and  induce  sup- 
puration. The  management  of  a  seton  requires  a  good 
deal  of  attention.  It  must  be  pulled  up  and  down  in  the 
wound  every  day,  the  pus  carefully  pressed  out,  and  the 
orifices  washed  with  warm  water.  The  two  ends  of  the 
tape  may  be  tied  together,  or  small  pieces  of  wood  attached 


304  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

to  the  ends,  to  prevent  the  tape  being  accidentally  drawn 
into  the  wound.  The  tape  should  be  renewed  about  once 
a  week,  if  intended  to  be  kept  in  for  some  time. 

Firing  is  the  most  rapid  way  of  producing  inflammation. 
Much  of  the  firing  done  is  of  no  value,  and  it  nearly  always, 
leaves  a  blemish.  It  is  not  recommended  for  use  by  any 
but  veterinary  surgeons,  since  much  irreparable  injury 
may  be  done  by  useless  or  improper  firing. 

Medicine  may  be  introduced  through  the  following 
channels:  by  the  mouth;  by  inhalation  into  the  lungs 
and  air  passages;  by  the  skin  through  absorption;  under 
the  skin  by  hypodermic  methods,  and  by  injections  into 
the  rectum. 

Medicine  may  be  given  by  the  mouth  in  the  forms  of 
powders,  balls  or  capsules,  drenches  and  electuaries. 

Powders  should  be  as  finely  pulverized  as  possible  in 
order  to  secure  rapid  solution  and  absorption.  They 
should  be  free  from  any  irritating  or  caustic  action  on  the 
mouth.  If  dry  the  powders  may  shake  down  to  the  bottom 
of  the  manger;  the  practice  is,  therefore,  to  dissolve  or 
suspend  them  in  water  and  sprinkle  on  the  feed.  Those 
without  disagreeable  taste  or  odor  are  readily  taken  in  the 
feed  or  drinking  water. 

Balls  should  be  cylindrical  in  shape,  about  two  inches, 
long  and  half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
They  should  be  fresh,  and  wrapped  in  tissue  paper  when 
given;  gelatine  capsules  may  also  be  used.  Balls  are  pre- 
ferred to  drenches  when  the  medicine  is  disagreeable; 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  305. 

when  the  dose  is  not  large,  and  when  the  medicine  is 
intended  to  act  slowly.  Balls  may  be  made  up  by  the  addi- 
tion of  honey,  syrup  or  soap. 

When  medicine  is  given  as  a  drench  enough  water  or 
oil  must  be  used  to  thoroughly  dissolve  or  dilute  it. 
Insoluble  medicines  may  be  given  suspended  in  water,  the 
bottle  being  shaken  before  administering  it.  If  a  drenching 
horn  is  not  available,  use  a  long-necked  bottle  without  a 
shoulder,  of  suitable  size  to  contain  the  dose.  The  head 
should  be  elevated  enough  to  prevent  the  horse  from 
throwing  the  liquid  out  of  his  mouth.  The  halter  strap 
should  be  passed  over  a  limb  or  beam,  but  if  none  are 
available  a  pitchfork  or  pronged  stick  inserted  in  the  halter 
will  answer  to  raise  the  head  until  the  line  of  the  face  is 
horizontal,  which  is  all  that  is  needed  in  any  case.  The 
horn  or  bottle  should  be  introduced  at  the  side  of  the 
mouth  and  slowly  emptied.  If  the  horse  does  not  swallow, 
remove  the  bottle  and  rub  the  throat  gently.  If  coughing 
or  any  accident  occurs,  lower  the  head  immediately.  In 
no  case  should  drenches  be  given  through  the  nose. 

Electuaries  are  medicines  mixed  with  licorice  root 
powder,  molasses  or  syrup,  to  such  a  consistency  that  the 
mass  will  stick  to  the  tongue  and  teeth.  They  are  given 
with  a  wooden  paddle  or  long-handled  spoon. 

Medicines  are  administered  to  the  lungs  and  upper  air 
passages  by  insufflation,  which  consists  in  blowing  an  im- 
palpable powder  directly  into  the  nose,  and  by  inhalation 
in  the  case  of  gaseous  or  volatile  medicines.  The  first 


306  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

named  method  is  rarely  resorted  to.  It  is  a  common  and 
well  recommended  practice  to  add  carbolic  acid,  iodine,  or 
other  prescribed  medicine,  when  preparing  a  bag  for 
steaming  the  horse. 

Medicines  are  only  applied  to  the  skins  of  horses  for 
absorption  in  local  diseases,  usually  as  liniments  or  blisters. 

Medicine  is  frequently  given  under  the  skin  with  the 
hypodermic  syringe.  It  should  be  done  only  by  the  vet- 
erinary surgeon. 

Injections  are  usually  thrown  into  the  rectum  with  a 
large  syringe,  but  a  straight  tube  about  twelve  inches  long, 
of  a  size  easily  inserted,  and  which  carries  an  upright  funnel 
at  the  end,  is  believed  to  be  the  best,  for  the  liquid  is  car- 
ried in  by  gravity.  This  answers  the  purpose  fully  without 
the  danger  arising  from  using  too  much  force.  Medicine 
is  injected  in  the  rectum  when  local  action  is  desired,  or 
when  it  cannot  be  retained  by  the  mouth. 

The  supply  table  of  veterinary  medicines  does  not  con- 
tain, by  any  means,  all  those  used  by  the  professional 
veterinarian,  but  is  quite  sufficient  for  the  average  troop 
farrier.  In  fact,  the  rule  should  be,  much  nursing  and  little 
medicine,  unless  prescribed  by  the  veterinary  surgeon.  In- 
asmuch as  he  cannot  be  with  all  detachments,  it  is  wise  to 
provide  a  few  simple  remedies  for  immediate  use  in  easily 
diagnosed  cases.  The  accompanying  supply  table  and  pre- 
scriptions composed  of  medicines  contained  therein,  were 
adopted  upon  the  recommendation  of  a  board  of  cavalry 
officers: 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 


30/ 


TABLE  OF  SUPPLY  OF  MEDICINES  FOR  THREE  MONTHS. 


MEDICINES. 


For  100 

animals 


animals 


For  200       For  300 


animals 


or  multiple  of  same. 


Acid,  carbolic,  crystallized  .   .  ozs.  16 

Aconite,  tincture  of  the  root ozs.  4 

Alcohol gals. 

Aloes,  Barbadoes •    •    •    .    .  ozs. 

Ammonia,  aromatic,  spirits  of Ibs. 

Ammonia,  carbonate  of Ibs. 

Ammonia,  solution  of gals. 

Belladonna,  fluid  extract  of ozs  4 

Camphor Ibc. 

'Cantharides  (Spanish  flies),  powdered ozs.  2 

Charcoal  (powdered) Ibs. 

/;.  Cosmoline,  veterinary Ibs. 

Ether,  spirits  of  nitrous  (sweet  spirits  of  niter  ) Ibs.  3 

'Ether,  sulphuric Ibs. 

Flaxseed  meal Ibs.  25 

Ginger,  powdered Ibs. 

Gentian,  powdered Ibs.  2 

•  -Glycerine ozs.  3 

Iron,  sulphate  of,  desiccated ozs. 

Lime,  chloride  of Ibs.  25 

Lunar  caustic - ozs. 

Oil,  linseed gals.  2 

Opium,  tincture   of Ibs.  3 

•Oil,    olive       gals 

Pepper,    Cayenne,   ground )bs 

Potassa,  nitrate  of  (saltpeter) .Ibs. 

Soap,    Castile Ibs  10 

Soda,   bicarbonate   of Ibs.  4 

Sulphur,   washed Ibs. 

Turpentine,  oil  of gals. 

-Zinc,  sulphate  of .      ozs. 


•3° 


308 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


DRESSINGS  FOR  SIX  MONTHS'  SUPPLY. 


MEDICINES. 


For  too  I   For-  200 
animals  \  animals 


Forjoo 
annuals 


or  multiple  o/  same. 


Bandages,  2^  in.  wide,  4  yards  long,  of  heavy  bed  ticking  .  doz. 
Bandages,  4  in.  wide,  4  yards  long,  of  heavy  red  flannel  .   .  doz. 

Oakum      Ibs. 

Silk  for  ligature .    .  ozs. 

Sponges,  coarse ' Ibs. 


INSTRUMENTS  FOR  EACH  POST. 


Ball-forceps,  (Fig.  7,  Plate  XXXVI) No. 

Bistoury,  (  Fig.  4,  Plate  XXXVI  ) No. 

Catheter,  gum  with  stylet,  (  Fig.  i,  Plate  XXXVI)  ....  No. 

Cork-screw      No. 

Drenching-horn,  tin No. 

Fleam,  3  blades,   (Fig.  2,  Plate  XXXVI) No. 

Funnel,  tin No. 

Graduate-glass,  6  ounces      No 

Hobbles,   casting No. 

Hone      No. 

Lancet  .   .       . No. 

Measures,  tin    sets No 

Mortar  and  pestle,  wedgewood,  large No. 

Needles,  surgeon's No. 

Needles,  seton No. 

Probang,  celluloid,  in  two  pieces,  (  Fig   5,  Plate  XXXVI )  No. 

Scales  and  weights,  shop No. 

Scissors,  curved No 

Slings,  suspending No. 

Spatulas No 

Speculum,  mouth,  (  Fig.  6,  Plate  XXXVI) No. 

Syringe,  rubber,  2-ounce No. 

Syringe,  rubber,  24-ounce No. 

Thermometer,  clinical .  No. 

Tooth  rasps No. 

Trocar  and  canula,  (  Fig.  3,  Plate  XXXVI )  .   .    . 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 


309 


The  medicines  are  not  regarded  as  an  expendable 
allowance  beyond  what  is  actually  used,  and  such  amounts 
only  as  will  probably  be  needed  are  issued.  The  following 
explanation  of  their  uses  may  prove  of  service. 

Acid,  Carbolic,  Crystallized. —  A  dangerous  poison,  and  a 

PLATE    XXXVI. 


valuable  medicine,  used  externally  for  destruction  of  para- 
sites; internally  for  strangles,  putrid  sore  throat,  diarrhea, 
dysentery,  and  chronic  indigestion  accompanied  by  the  pas- 
sage of  much  wind  or  foul-smelling  manure.  Full  dose, 
one  or  two  drams  diluted  with  twenty  times  the  quantity 
of  glycerine,  linseed  oil  or  gruel,  and  repeated  once  or 
twice  a  day.  For  application  to  sores  make  a  solution  of 


310  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

one  part  of  acid  to  twenty  or  forty  of  water,  soak  some 
oakum,  and  apply  with  bandage.  Poisoning  by  carbolic 
acid  may  be  induced  by  too  large  doses  internally,  or  by 
external  application  to  a  large  surface;  hence  great  care  is 
needed  in  its  use. 

Aconite,  Tincture  of  the  Root. — A  dangerous  poison,  used 
in  fevers  and  inflammation  of  the  bowels  during  the  first 
two  or  three  days.  In  pneumonia,  not  to  be  used  except 
when  heart  beat  is  strong.  Dose,  ten  drops;  repeated 
every  hour  or  two  till  six  or  eight  doses  have  been  given. 

Commencing  of  sore  throat,  five  drops,  given  every 
hour  for  a  short  time,  will  often  cut  the  disease  short. 
Medicine  is  dropped  on  the  tongue,  or  added  to  a  little 
water,  and  injected  into  the  mouth. 

Pain  of  colic,  indigestion  and  constipation  is  sometimes 
relieved  by  aconite,  in  connection  with  other  remedies. 
Aconite  may  be  added  to  liniments. 

Alcohol  is  one  of  the  most  important  medicines  used 
in  making  tinctures  and  some  of  the  liniments. 

For  congestion  of  the  lungs,  colic,  indigestion  and  diar- 
rhea, give  one  to  two  ounces,  diluted  with  three  times  the 
quantity  of  gruel,  and  repeated  not  oftener  than  every  two 
hours. 

Tincture  of  camphor i  oz. 

Tincture  of  gentian i  oz. 

Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia i  oz. 

The  above  tinctures  are  composed  in  great  part  of 
alcohol;  hence  their  virtue,  to  a  large  extent,  as  in  the 
treatment  of  disease  alcohol  is  probably  unequaled  by  any 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  311 

other  medicine.  Externally  applied,  is  cooling;  when  con- 
fined, irritating,  and  may  blister.  Good  when  mixed  with 
equal  parts  of  water  to  harden  tender  skins  subject  to 
saddle  galls.  If  skin  is  broken  mix  equal  parts  of  white 
of  egg  and  alcohol,  and  paint  the  parts  over  with  the  paste 
till  a  thick  film  is  formed.  As  it  is  a  volatile  it  should  be 
kept  closely  corked. 

Aloes,  Barbadoes. —  Used  as  a  physic  in  spasmodic  or 
flatulent  colic,  indigestion,  constipation,  etc.  Give  on 
empty  stomach,  the  previous  meal  having  been  bran  mash. 
As  a  rule  aloes  do  not  purge  within  eighteen  hours;  if 
it  does  not  operate  in  thirty  hours  repeat  dose,  or  give 
linseed  oil. 

.  ("powdered  aloes  .  5  drams. 

Ball  of-( 

(powdered  ginger i  dram. 

Soft  soap,  as  much  as  needed  to  make  the  ball.     Use  with 
caution  in  colds,  influenza  and  inflammation  of  the  bowels. 
Ammonia,  Aromatic  Spirits  of. —  Good  for  flatulent  colic; 
in  dose  of  — 

Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia i  oz. 

Opium,  tincture  of .  .  .  i  oz. 

diluted  with  a  half  pint  of  gruel.  Double  above  for  first 
dose  if  necessary.  Give  at  intervals  of  one  hour. 

Ammonia,  Carbonate  of . — Valuable  stimulant  for  debility 
or  loss  of  appetite.  Keep  the  drug  or  dose  from  the  air. 
Give  a  ball  of — 

Ammonia,  carbonate  of 2  drams. 

Gentian 2  drams. 

Camphor i  dram, 

three  times  a  day.     Powder  the  camphor  first,  then  the 


312  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

ammonia,  then  mix  the  three  ingredients  into  a  ball.  Dis- 
solved with  alcohol  or  water,  may  be  used  as  a  drench.  An 
ointment  of  one  dram,  finely  powdered,  and  an  ounce  of 
cosmoline,  mixed  together,  is  used  to  relieve  rheumatic  and 
other  local  pains. 

Ammonia,  Solution  of. —  A  strong  preparation,  not  to  be 
used  if  the  others  are  to  be  had.  Can  be  used  in  from  y2 
to  2  drams,  diluted  with  8  ounces  of  gruel,  and  repeated 
every  two  or  three  hours.  For  liniment  — 

Ammonia,  solution  of i  part. 

Oil,  olive 2  parts. 

It  should  be  well  shaken  and  applied  with  friction  to  sore 
throat,  sprained  joints,  tendons  and  muscles,  and  for  all 
temporary  lameness.  If  stronger  liniment  is  needed,  take 
of— 

Ammonia,  solution  of       i  part. 

Turpentine,  oil  of i  part. 

Oil,  olive 3  parts. 

These  liniments  irritate  the  skin,  and  generally  cause 
the  hair  to  fall  out,  but  unless  the  parts  are  bandaged  after 
it  has  been  used,  the  hair  grows  again.  Undiluted  ammonia 
blisters  the  skin,  and  may  cause  sloughing,  which  is  fol- 
lowed by  a  permanent  blemish. 

Belladonna,   Fluid    Extract    of. —  For   sore   throat,    give 

twenty  to  sixty  drops,  made  into  a  tincture,  with  one  to 

seven  drams  of  diluted  alcohol  every  three  to  four  hours. 

In  influenza,  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  or  other  exhausting 

-diseases,  give  a  drench  made  of— 


KORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  313 

Extract  of  belladonna ^  dram. 

Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia i  oz. 

Tincture  of  camphor I  oz. 

Dilute  with  half  a  pint  of  gruel,  and  repeat  every  four  or 
six  hours. 

For  a  tonic,  give  a  ball  two  or  three  times  a  day  of — 

Belladonna YZ  dram. 

Gentian 3  drams. 

Ginger i  dram. 

For  animals  that  sweat  profusely,  give  — 

Belladonna i  dram. 

Gentian 3  drams. 

Nitrate  of  potassa  (saltpeter) 2  drams. 

Make  into  a  ball  and  repeat  twice  a  day. 

Externally,  belladonna  is  used  in  the  form  of  an  oint- 
ment, to  dress  painful  wounds,  frostbites,  burns,  scalds, 
cracked  heels,  scratches,  saddle-galls,  etc.  The  ointment 
is  made  up  with  cosmoline,  and  applied  once  or  twice  a 
day.  The  backs  of  some  saddle  horses  have  a  great  ten- 
dency to  sweat,  and  gall.  It  may  often  be  prevented 'by 
bathing  the  parts  on  which  the  greatest  pressure  comes 
with  equal  parts  of  the  tincture  and  water.  The  tincture 
or  ointment  is  used  on  rheumatic  joints. 

Camphor. —  As  a  sedative,  given  in  chronic  cough,  colic, 
diarrhea  and  influenza;  dose,  one  to  two  drams,  made  into 
a  ball  with  gentian,  or  given  in  gruel.  Externally,  spirits 
of  camphor  are  used  for  sprains,  bruises  and  wounds,  and 
enter  into  many  liniments. 

Cantharides. —  Used  for  making  blistering  ointments. 
The  powdered  drug  may  be  sprinkled  in  small  quantities 
over  wounds,  to  keep  them  discharging. 


3H  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

Charcoal,  Powdered. —  Good  for  wind  colic,  chronic  indi- 
gestion, diarrhea  and  fermentation  of  food.  Make  into  a 
ball,  and  give  two  or  three  times  a  day  — 

Cayenne  pepper i  dram. 

Gentian 2  drams. 

Charcoal 4  drams. 

Externally,  powdered  charcoal  is  used  to  sprinkle  over 
sores  having  a  tendency  to  become  foul.  In  scratches 
where  the  discharge  is  profuse,  sprinkle  the  surface  with 
charcoal  before  applying  the  other  dressing.  When  drink- 
ing water  contains  organic  matter,  thoroughly  stir  in  some 
charcoal,  and  after  it  has  settled,  the  water  is  ready  for  use. 

Cosmoline,  Carbolized. —  Used  for  making  ointments, 
application  to  sores,  etc. 

Ether,  spirit  of  nitrous  (sweet  spirits  of  niter),  used 
internally,  for  both  wind  and  spasmodic  colic.  Dilute  with 
half  pint  of  cold  gruel,  and  repeat  every  half  hour. 

Sweet  spirits  of  niter     .      i  oz. 

Tincture  of  opium i  oz. 

Tincture  of  ginger ^  oz. 

Ether,  Sulphuric. —  Good  colic  remedy.  Dilute  with  half 
pint  of  cold  gruel  or  water,  and  repeat  every  half  hour  the 
following: 

Ether i  to  2  ozs. 

Opium,  tincture i  to  2  ozs. 

Externally  it  is  used  to  produce  loss  of  sensation  in  the 
skin  when  surface  operations  are  to  be  performed,  as  firing, 
opening  abscesses,  fistula,  etc.  Being  volatile,  ether  must 
be  kept  closely  corked. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  315 

Flax  seed  Meal. —  Principally  used  in  making  poultices 
and  balls;  about  one  quart  of  the  meal  wet  with  water 
makes  a  good  sized  poultice,  or  it  may  be  mixed  with  an 
equal  quantity  of  bran.  It  should  not  be  used  longer  than 
from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  before  being  removed. 
Internally,  flaxseed  meal  is  a  food  of  great  value,  and  at 
the  same  time  has  certain  remedial  properties.  Where  the 
coat  is  rough  and  staring,  the  appetite  poor  or  condition 
thin;  or  when  shedding  of  the  old  coat  is  long  delayed  in 
the  spring  time,  flaxseed  meal  can  be  fed  with  advantage. 
The  dose  should  be  half  a  pound  twice  a  day,  mixed  dry 
with  the  other  food.  In  inflammation  of  the  kidneys, 
bladder  and  bowels,  it  may  be  used  in  the  form  of  a  tea,, 
which  is  made  by  pouring  a  gallon  of  boiling  water  on  a. 
quart  or  two  of  the  meal,  stirring  it  for  a  few  minutes,  then, 
leaving  it  to  cool  and  settle,  after  which  it  is  drawn  off  and 
given  to  drink  instead  of  water,  any  quantity  being 
allowed. 

Ginger  i  Powdered. — Valuable  constituent  of  colic 
drenches.  When  a  dose  of  physic  is  given,  one  or  two 
drams  of  ginger  should  be  given  to  prevent  griping,  and  tot 
assist  action  of  purgative.  It  is  usually  one  of  the  con- 
stituents of  condition  powders.  A  drench  with  one-half 
pint  of  cold  gruel  or  ball  of  the  following  is  good: 

Gentian,  powdered 2  drams. 

Aloes i  dram. 

Ginger,  powdered 2  drams. 

Gentian,  Powdered. —  A  most  valuable  tonic;  it  increases 


3l6  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

the  appetite  and  stimulates  digestion.  The  dose  is  four  to 
five  drams,  repeated  in  from  two  to  six  hours. 

Glycerine. —  Used  principally  for  external  application. 
A  liniment  made  of— 

Carbolic  acid i  dram, 

Glycerine 8  drams, 

is  much  used  for  scratches,  sore  heels,  *  chafes,  wounds  and 
sores  exposed  to  the  air.  It  is  applied  once  or  twice  a  day. 
As  a  dressing  for  bandaged  wounds  or  sores  take  — 

Carbolic  acid i  dram. 

Glycerine 2  drams. 

Water 6  to  8  ozs. 

This  solution  is  also  used  to  remove  dirt  or  scurf  from 
the  skin,  to  kill  lice,  mange  and  ringworms,  and  to  inject 
into  the  rectum  to  remove  pinworms. 

Chloride  of  Lime. —  Used  internally  in  cases  of  wind  colic, 
fermentation  of  the  food  and  indigestion,  accompanied  by 
the  formation  of  gas.  Particularly  where  the  stomach  is 
affected,  make  of- 

Gentian,  powdered 2  drams, 

Flaxseed  meal 4  drams, 

Chloride  of  lime 2  to  4  drams, 

a  thick  paste  out  of  the  first  two  drugs;  shape  into  a  hollow 
cylinder  about  two  inches 'long,  closed  at  one  end;  then 
introduce  the  lime,  close  the  open  end,,and  administer  at 
once;  or  drench  with  lime  as  above  in  half  a  pint  of  cold 
gruel  or  milk.  A  four-dram  dose  of  lime  may  be  repeated 
two  or  three  times  in  the  course  of  two  hours.  Its  action 
should  also  be  supplemented  with  full  doses  of  charcoal. 
.Solution  of  chloride  of  lime  one  part,  and  water  four  to 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  317 

eight  parts,  is  used  in  foul  sores  of  the  feet  or  other  parts. 
The  lime  may  be  mixed  with  two  parts  of  charcoal,  finely 
powdered,  and  sprinkled  over  the  diseased  tissue.  It  is 
also  used  as  a  disinfectant. 

Iron,  Sulphate  of,  Desiccated, —  A  valuable  tonic;  should 
never  be  used  during  the  height  of  disease,  where  there  is 
fever,  or  when  the  digestion  is  weak  and  the  appetite  poor. 

A  mixture  of- 

Sulphate  of  iron i  dram, 

Ginger i  dram, 

Alcohol i  to  2  ozs., 

diluted  with  half  a  pint  of  cold  gruel,  and  repeated  two  or 
three  times  daily,  makes  a  good  tonic  for  weakness. 

Externally,  a  solution  of  iron,  one  dram  to  one  or  two 
ounces  of  water,  may  be  used  to  stimulate  the  healing  of  old 
wounds,  or  the  powdered  drug  may  be  sprinkled  over  the 
surface  of  the  wound. 

Lunar  Caustic,  or  Nitrate  of  Silver. —  Is  used  for  destroy- 
ing tissues  and  for  stimulating  the  healing  of  wounds.  The 
point  of  the  stick  is  dipped  in  water  and  then  touched  to 
every  part  of  the  unhealed  flesh.  A  white  surface  is 
formed,  under  which  the  healing  process  progresses.  Be- 
fore a  wound  receives  an  application  of  lunar  caustic,  care- 
fully clean  the  exposed  parts  with  water.  Application 
should  be  made  every  day  or  every  other  day. 

Oil,  Linseed. —  Used  internally  as  a  physic;  dose,  eight 
to  sixteen  ounces.  A  drench  of — 

Linseed  oil 8  ozs., 

Aloes 4  drams, 

Ginger    .  .  2  drams. 


3l8  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

is  good.  It  is  used  in  connection  with  aloes  when  the  latter 
does  not  operate. 

Oil,  Olive. —  Used  internally  for  diluting  irritating  med- 
icines ;  externally  for  oiling  blistered  surfaces  and  for 
making  liniments  and  ointments.  It  should  not  be  used 
as  a  purgative. 

Tincture  of  Opium  (Laudainnn}. —  A  poison  used  to  allay 
pain.  Dose,  half  an  ounce  to  two  ounces.  For  spasmodic 
colic,  as  a  drench,  diluted  with  six  ounces  of  gruel,  use  — 

Tincture  of  opium 2  ozs. 

Sweet  spirits  of  niter 2  ozs. 

Give  half  of  above  every  half  hour.  For  wind  colic 
dilute  with  one-half  pint  of  gruel  — 

Tincture  of  opium i  oz., 

Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia 2  ozs., 

Aloes    2  drams, 

Tincture  of  Cayenne  pepper  or  ginger ^  oz., 

and  give  as  above.  No  more  than  four  doses  of  this 
should  be  given. 

Pepper,  Cayenne,  Ground. — This  drug  creates  a  feeling  of 
warmth,  acts  as  an  appetizer,  and,  in  frequent  doses,  stops 
the  watery  discharges  of  diarrhea  and  excessive  purging. 
Dose,  one-half  to  two  drams,  given  in  a  ball,  oil  or  gruel. 
In  colic  it  is  added  to  the  usual  drench  of  ammonia,  opium 
or  niter.  As  an  appetizer  give  twice  a  day  in  a  ball  — 

Cayenne  pepper i  dram. 

Aloes 2  drams. 

Gentian 2  drams. 

Salt .  3  drams. 

If  to  above  one  dram  of  the  sulphate  of  iron  is  added, 
it  may  be  used  for  mild  cases  of  staggers. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  319 

Potassa-Nitrate  (Saltpeter). — A  stimulant  for  the  kidneys, 
and  a  reducer  of  fevers.  When  given  to  act  on  the  kid- 
neys the  dose  is  one-half  to  one  ounce,  made  into  a  ball,  or 
dissolved  in  half  pint  of  water,  and  repeated  once  or  twice 
a  day  for  three  or  four  days.  As  a  remedy  for  founder 
this  drug  has  probably  no  equal.  Dose,  two  to  three  ounces 
dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  and  repeated  every  six  hours. 
This  treatment  may  be  continued  for  three  or  four  days 
without  danger.  Externally  used  as  a  cooling  lotion,  one 
ounce  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water  and  applied  at  once. 
Niter  is  a  common  ingredient  of  condition  powders. 

Soap,  Castile. —  May  be  used  in  making  balls,  liniments 
and  ointments.  In  the  absence  of  other  remedies  it  may 
be  given  to  stimulate  the  kidneys. 

Soda,  Bicarbonate. —  Serves  to  correct  acidity  of  the 
stomach.  When  corn  is  the  sole  food,  causing  an  inter- 
ference with  digestion,  soda  frequently  sets  matters  aright. 
It  is  made  into  a  ball,  and  repeated  once  or  twice  daily,  of 

Cayenne  pepper y2  dram. 

Gentian  or  ginger 2  to  4  drams. 

Salt 2  drams. 

Bicarbonate  of  soda 2  to  4  drams. 

In  fevers  it  may  be  combined  with  niter  in  doses  of  two 
to  four  drams  each.  Externally  used  as  a  cooling  lotion. 

Sulphur,  \\~ashcd. —  One  of  the  constituents  of  condition 
powders.  Externally,  sulphur  destroys  mange  and  ring- 
worm. An  ointment  made  of — 

Sulphur 2  drams, 

Lard .  i  oz., 


320  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

well  rubbed  together,  the  skin  cleaned  with  soap  and  water, 
and  ointment  well  rubbed  in,  or  a  liniment  of— 

Sulphur i  part, 

Linseed  oil 6  parts, 

Tar      i  part, 

may  be  used. 

Oil  of  Turpentine. —  For  constipation  of  long  standing 
give  — 

Aloes 7  drams. 

Turpentine i  oz. 

Linseed  oil 2  ozs. 

To  remove  seat  worms  inject  two  or  three  times  — 

Turpentine i  part. 

Linseed  oil 12  parts. 

Externally  for  liniments  for  rheumatism  — 

Turpentine i  part. 

Opium,  tincture  of i  part. 

Linseed  oil 3  parts. 

To  destroy  lice  take  — 

Linseed  oil 4  parts. 

Turpentine i  part. 

Apply  once  a  day. 

SnlpJiate  of  Zinc. —  A  solution  of  five  to  ten  grains  to 
the  ounce  of  water,  applied  once  a  day;  good  for  wounds, 
and  stimulates  the  healing.  Useful  in  wounds  of  the  feet, 
scratches,  burns,  frost  bites,  fistula,  sore  backs,  etc.  Good 
disinfectant.  Sometimes  given  internally  as  a  tonic  and 
astringent  in  doses  of  one  to  three  drams,  diluted  with 
gruel.  Use  as  an  eye  wash,  five  grains  to  an  ounce  of  dis- 
tilled or  filtered  water. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  32  I 

Drenching  Horn  (Tin). —  For  giving  medicines  in  form 
of  drenches. 

Fleam. —  Used  for  bleeding.  Open  one  blade  till  it  is- 
on  a  straight  line  with  the  handle;  place  the  point  on  the 
skin  over  the  vessel  to  be  opened,  and  then  strike  a  short, 
quick  stroke  with  a  stick.  The  lance  should  be  kept  sharp 
and  disinfected.  The  lance  is  used  for  opening  abscesses. 
(Fig.  2,  Plate  XXXVI.) 

Probang. —  Used  for  removing  objects  lodged  in  the 
throat  or  gullet,  the  animal  being  cast  before  the  operation, 
and  three  or  four  ounces  of  linseed  oil  poured  down  the 
throat.  Indiscriminate  use  of  this  instrument  is  injurious. 
(Fig.  5,  Plate  XXX VI.) 

Speculum,  Mouth. —  For  holding  mouth  open  for  exami- 
nations, balling,  etc.  (Fig.  6,  Plate  XXXVI.) 

Ball  Forceps. —  Used  for  extracting  bullets  and  other 
foreign  substances  from  the  tissues,  located  by  means  of  a 
probe.  (Fig.  7,  Plate  XXXVI.) 

Bistoury  (Straight). —  Used  in  cutting  deep  tissues.  The 
parts  of  the  wound  at  the  bottom  are  protected  by  the  probe 
point.  (Fig.  4,  Plate  XXXVI.) 

Catheter. —  Used  for  drawing  water  from  the  bladder. 
(Fig.  i,  Plate  XXXVI.) 

Trocar. —  Is  used  for  tapping  the  abdomen  when  filled 
with  gas,  as  in  wind  colic.  (Fig.  8,  Plate  XXXVI.) 

Oakum. —  Used  as  a  dressing  for  wounds  or  sores.  Balls 
are  made  of  the  fiber,  and  soaked  in  solution  of  carbolic 
acid,  chloride  of  zinc,  and  applied  to  wound,  being  kept  in 


3^2  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

place  by  a  pad  of  oakum  and  bandage.  It  should  never  be 
used  a  second  time  for  dressing.  It  may  be  used  to  arrest 
bleeding.  It  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  dust,  and 
closely  packed  to  prevent  the  drying  out  of  the  tar  which 
is  in  it. 

Silk,  for  Ligatures. —  Two  sizes  of  the  silk  should  be 
supplied,  one  for  sewing  up  small  wounds,  the  other 
where  considerable  strain  will  come  on  the  stitches.  It 
may  be  used  as  a  ligature  on  small  warts  or  tumors,  when 
it  is  desired  to  remove  them  by  sloughing  off.  Silk  should 
be  kept  clean,  and  disinfected  with  a  weak  solution  of  car- 
bolic acid. 

Sponges. —  For  cleaning  wounds,  washing  sores,  etc. 
They  should  always  be  washed  after  being  used,  and  dried 
to  prevent  rotting. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  useful  prescriptions 
which  may  be  prepared  with  medicines  from  the  supply 
table: 

BLISTER   OINTMENT. 

•Cosmoline 4  parts. 

Cantharid.es i  part. 

CARBOLIC    LOTION. 

•Carbolic  acid i  part. 

Glycerine 9  parts. 

CARBOLIZED    OIL. 

Carbolic  acid i  part. 

Linseed  oil 7  parts. 

CARBOLIC    OINTMENT. 

•Cosmoline    7  parts. 

Carbolic  acid I  part. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  323 

SPASMODIC  COLIC  MIXTURE. 

Ether,  sulphuric i  oz, 

Opium,  tincture  of i  oz. 

Ginger,  powdered 1  dram. 

FLATULENT  COLIC  MIXTURE. 

Ammonia,  aromatic  spirits  of I  oz. 

Opium,  tincture  of i  oz. 

Ginger,  powdered i  dram. 

DIARRHEA    MIXTURE. 

Alcohol i  oz. 

Cayenne  pepper     2  drams. 

Ginger i  dram. 

Opium,  tincture  of i  oz. 

DIURETIC    POWDERS. 

Potassa,  nitrate  of 4  drams. 

Gentian,  powdered 2  to  4  drams. 

FOUNDER    POWDERS. 

Potassa,  nitrate  of 3  to  4  ozs. 

Gentian,  powdered 4  drams. 

HARTSHORN    LINIMENT. 

Ammonia,  solution  of • i  part. 

Olive  oil 2  parts. 

HOOF    OINTMENT. 

Cosmoline 4  ozs. 

Turpentine i  oz. 

Charcoal .  i  oz. 

ANODYNE    MIXTURE. 

Opium,  tincture  of 99  parts. 

Aconite,  tincture  of i  part. 

For  inflamed  bowels,  etc.       i 

SORE   THROAT    MIXTURE. 

Belladonna,  fluid  extract  of 20  drops. 

Aconite,  tincture  of 10  drops. 

TONIC    POWDERS. 

Gentian,  powdered 2  drams. 

Ginger,  powdered -. 2  drams.    . 

Sulphur 2  drams. 

Aloes    .  i  dram. 


324  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

T URPENTI X E    LI  X I MEXT. 

Turpentine,  oil  of i  part. 

Ammonia,  solution  of i  part. 

Olive  oil 3  parts. 

IRON    TINCTURE    POWDERS. 

Iron,  sulphate  of,  desiccated ]/?.  dram. 

Gentian,  powdered 2  drams. 

Aloes     i  dram. 

ANODYNE    LINIMENT. 

Belladonna,  extract  of 2  drams. 

Aconite,  tincture  of 2  drams. 

Alcohol 6  ozs. 

Camphor 4  drams. 

One  of  the  most  important  astringent  lotions,   called 
the  "  white  lotion,"  is  composed  of— 

Sulphate  of  z^nc i  oz. 

Acetate  of  lead i  oz. 

Water i  quart. 

For  antiseptic  use  add  carbolic  acid,  i  dram.     Acetate 
of  lead  is  not  on  the  supply  table. 


CHARTER 


DISEASES  AND  INJURIES. 


Common  Cold. —  Influenza. —  Strangles. —  Glanders. —  Pneumonia,  or  Lung 
Fever. —  Lampas. — Constipation. —  Spasmodic  Colic. — Flatulent  Colic. — 
Diarrhea. —  Lockjaw. —  Profuse  Staling. —  Retention  of  Urine. —  Bloody 
Urine. —  Poll  Evil. —  Sore  Back. —  Mange. —  Scratches. —  Spavins. — 
Curb. —  Capped  Hock.  —  Broken  Knees. — Splint. —  Ringbones. — Wind- 
galls. — Interfering. —  Swelled  Legs. —  Pricking  of  the  Foot. —  Punctures 
of  the  Frog.— Corns.— Quittor.— Sand  Cracks.— Seedy  Toe.— Thrush. — 
Navicular  Disease. —  Laminitis.  —  Side  Bones.  —  Calking.  —  Flesh 
Wounds:  Gun  Shot;  Stabs;  Cuts;  Lacerations  and  Contusions. 


COMMON  COLD. —  This  is  an  acute  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  membrane  which  lines  the  nostrils.  It  is  the  same 
affection  as  cold  in  the  head  in  the  human  subject. 

Symptoms. —  A  snorting  cough,  loss  of  appetite,  dullness 
of  the  eye,  rough  coat,  redness  of  the  mucous  membrane 
lining  the  nostrils,  followed  by  a  thin  discharge,  gradually 
becoming  thicker  and  more  profuse,  characterize  this 
disease. 

Sometimes  a  light  fever  exists,  the  bowels  are  more  or 
less  constipated,  and  the  throat  becomes  sore;  the  glands 
under  the  jaw  may  become  inflamed. 

Treatment. —  Put  the  animal  in  a  loose  box,  with  plenty 
ofj^ fresh  air  without  draughts.  If  the  weather  is  cold, 


326  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

cover  with  blankets.  Give  plenty  of  water,  and  feed  on 
bran  mashes  and  hay. 

If  the  running  at  the  nose  be  considerable,  and  the 
cough  troublesome,  relief  may  be  given  by  steaming  the 
head  frequently.  This  is  accomplished  by  holding  the 
head  over  a  pail  of  hot  water,  which  is  stirred  gently  with 
a  whisp  of  hay. 

The  steaming  may  be  done  over  a  nose  bag  or  gunny 
sack  into  which  some  chopped  hay  or  sawdust  has  been 
placed,  over  which  hot  water  is  poured.  If  the  patient 
becomes  feverish,  give  a  dose  of  nitrate  of  potassa,  one  to 
two  drams,  daily  for  two  or  three  days.  If  constipated  use 
an  injection  of  warm  water. 

In  all  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs,  active  purga- 
tive medicine  should  be  avoided. 

If  neglected  the  disease  may  terminate  in  pneumonia, 
or  become  chronic,  and  is  the^n  known  as  nasal  gleet. 

INFLUENZA. — This  disease  has  its  origin  generally  in 
dirty  stables,  bad  ventilation,  or  when  animals  are  crowded 
together  in  damp,  ill-ventilated  situations.  Severity  is 
much  increased  by  poor  forage  and  overwork. 

Symptoms. —  Loss  of  appetite,  prostration,  respiratory 
organs  become  involved,  and  nervous  system  is  affected. 
Often  complicated  with  diseases  of  the  liver,  lungs  and 
mucous  membranes  generally. 

Under  various  names,  such  as  pinkeye,  epizootic,  etc., 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  327 

this  disease  at  times  becomes  very  general,  and  is  consid- 
ered contagious. 

Treatment. —  The  aim  should  be  to  support  the  animal 
through  the  disease,  and  enable  nature  to  throw  off  the 
morbid  material  in  the  system.  Good  nursing  and  food, 
mostly  of  a  laxative  character,  are  prime  requisites.  Water 
should  be  kept  where  the  animal  can  help  itself. 

STRANGLES. —  This  is  a  disease,  usually  attended  with 
an  eruptive  fever,  to  which  young  horses  are  especially 
subject.  The  disease  generally  manifests  itself  in  the 
glandular  structures,  particularly  the  submaxillary  and 
parotid  glands,  which  become  inflamed,  followed  by  sup- 
puration in  the  connective  tissue. 

Symptoms. —  The  horse  looks  sick,  is  off  his  feed,  and 
has  perhaps  a  slight  discharge  of  a  catarrhal  nature.  The 
coat  becomes  harsh  and  staring,  and  the  animal  hide- 
bound. In  a  day  or  two  the  glands  under  the  jaw,  or 
behind  the  ear,  begin  to  swell,  and  the  throat  becomes, 
sore.  Hesitation  and  difficulty  in  swallowing,  with  unusual 
slobbering,  the  water  frequently  returning  through  the 
nostrils,  and  acceleration  of  breathing  occur.  The  animal 
may  be  unthrifty  for  some  weeks  before  the  disease  mani- 
fests itself.  Increase  in  temperature  and  pulse  take  place. 

Treatment. —  When  the  tumor  forms  regularly  in  the 
submaxillary  space,  and  is  of  the  ordinary  size,  the  abscess 
generally  comes  to  maturity  without  much  trouble  or 
inconvenience.  If,  however,  it  is  situated  high  up  towards 


328  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

the  parotid  glands,  the  distress  in  the  breathing  will  often 
be  very  great,  and  the  fever  run  high.  The  great  object 
is  to  assist  nature  to  develop  the  eruption  fully  and  quickly, 
.as  strangles  runs  a  specific  course ;  hence,  good  nursing 
and  soft  food,  on  account  of  the  attending  sore  throat,  are 
the  principal  things.  The  appetite  must  be  watched,  and 
tempted  with  grass,  if  to  be  had.  Sick  animals  soon  tire 
of  bran  mash,  so  that  linseed  meal  should  be  on  hand  to 
.add  to  the  mash  or  make  a  separate  gruel.  Cut  hay, 
steamed,  and  oats  softened  with  boiling  water  may  be 
given  as  soon  as  the  animal  can  eat. 

Blankets  and  leg  bandages  should  be  used,  and  if  the 
legs  are  cold  they  should  be  hand  rubbed.  No  purgative 
medicine  should  be  given. 

As  soon  as  the  tumor  has  headed  it  should  be  freely 
opened  with  a  lance,  for  it  may  be  opened  at  a  favorable 
point,  and  the  incision  is  not  so  apt  to  leave  a  blemish  as 
a  ragged  natural  opening.  The  abscess  must  be  kept 
open,  if  necessary,  by  a  piece  of  tow,  and  warm  water 
should  be  occasionally  injected  into  it. 

The  tumor  does  not  always  form  favorably,  but  some- 
times comes  on  the  shoulders,  front  of  the  chest,  etc.,  and 
occasionally  on  some  of  the  internal  glandular  structures. 

GLANDERS. —  This  is  a  contagious,  malignant  and  fatal 
disease,  communicable  to  human  attendants.  Is  caused  by 
a  specific  germ,  which  gains  entrance  to  the  system  most 
easily  when  the  animal  is  debilitated. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  329 

Symptoms. —  May  be  looked  for  in  cavalry  commands 
after  hard,  debilitating  work,  accompanied  by  bad  food 
and  miasmatic  surroundings,  if  previously  exposed  to  the 
germ.  The  horse  refuses  food,  coat  appears  rough,  per- 
spiration is  induced  by  the  slightest  exertion,  and  a  gen- 
erally unhealthy  appearance  exists.  There  is  a  discharge 
of  a  gluey  material  from  one  or  both  nostrils,  sometimes 
tinged  with  blood.  The  mucous  membranes  are  pale  and 
unhealthy,  and  that  covering  the  nasal  chamber,  from 
which  the  discharge  issues,  is  studded  over  with  deep,  pit- 
like  ulcers.  The  ulcers  are  characteristic,  being  excavated 
as  if  cut  with  a  punch,  but  after  a  time  they  become  ragged 
at  their  edges,  irregular,  enlarged  in  all  directions,  and 
finally  confluent.  The  spaces  between  the  ulcers  are  cov- 
ered with  hard,  yellowish  pimples,  which  soon  ulcerate. 
The  eye  is  affected,  and  an  unhealthy  discharge  often 
issues  over  the  face.  The  glands  under  the  jaw  enlarge 
and  form  a  tumor. 

Chronic  glanders  is  the  common  form.  When  acute 
glanders  appear  the  temperature  rises  as  high  as  105°  to 
109°.  The  animal  fails  rapidly,  and  death  ensues.  In 
many  cases  of  chronic  glanders  the  ulcer  is  undiscoverable, 
but  if  glanders  is  known  to  exist  in  a  stable  or  vicinity, 
any  suspicious  symptom  becomes  at  once  significant. 

Farcy  is  a  lighter  manifestation  of  glanders,  character- 
ized by  "  farcy  buds,"  or  nodular  swellings. 

Treatment. —  An  animal  in  which  glanders  or  farcy  is 
suspected  should  be  at  once  isolated,  and  when  the  disease 


330  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

is  clearly  manifested  there  should  be  no  hesitation  about 
destroying  the  animal,  since  no  known  methods  of  treat- 
ment avail  to  do  more  than  prolong  for  a  time  an  unhealthy 
existence. 

PNEUMONIA,  OR  LUNG  FEVER. —  This  is  an  inflamma- 
tion of  the  lung  structure. 

Symptoms. —  The  attack,  at  times,  comes  on  imper- 
ceptibly, and  again  it  appears  suddenly  without  any  pre- 
monitory symptoms.  The  attack  is  generally  ushered  in 
by  sudden  fits  of  shivering,  followed  by  coldness  of  the 
ears  and  extremities,  and  other  usual  signs  of  inflamma- 
tion, and  a  staring  coat.  The  coldness  of  the  extremities 
is  a  marked  sign  throughout  the  disease.  The  horse  is 
evidently  uneasy,  and  turns  his  head  frequently  around  to 
his  chest.  The  pulse  is  accelerated,  and  generally  averages 
about  eighty  beats  to  the  minute.  The  temperature  in  the 
early  stage  will  be  103°  to  106°  F. 

The  respiration  becomes  disturbed  as  soon  as  the 
disease  is  established.  The  nasal  linings  are  paler  than 
usual,  but  as  the  disease  progresses  they  become  purplish, 
and  then  of  a  leaden  hue. 

The  horse  will  stand  persistently  with  his  fore  legs 
wide  apart,  and  his  elbows  out,  to  afford  greater  expansion 
to  his  chest.  Horses  affected  with  this  disease  never  lie 
down  except  for  a  moment  at  a  time,  until  extreme  exhaus- 
tion comes  upon  them,  when  death  from  suffocation  rapidly 
ensues. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  331 

Cough  may  or  may  not  be  present.  If  it  accompany 
the  disease  it  is  sharp  at  first,  but  as  the  attack  progresses 
it  becomes  dry  and  of  a  dull  character. 

The  disease  may  attack  only  one  lung,  or  both.  If, 
during  the  early  stage,  the  ear  be  applied  to  the  chest,  a 
confused,  humming  noise,  accompanied  with  a  harsh,  dry 
murmur,  instead  of  the  gentle,  respiratory  sound  peculiar 
to  health,  will  be  heard.  With  increase  of  the  disease  the 
breathing  becomes  quicker  and  more  labored.  The  fever 
lasts  from  five  to  ten  days. 

Convalescence  is  indicated  by  the  return  of  the  pulse  to 
something  like  its  normal  condition,  restoration  of  warmth 
in  the  extremities,  a  moist  state  of  the  nostrils,  and  a  dis- 
position to  lie  down  for  rest. 

Treatment. —  Laxative  food,  entire  rest,  blankets,  and 
flannel  bandages  should  be  provided  at  once;  plenty  of 
fresh  air  in  the  box  stall,  but  no  draughts.  The  condition 
of  the  animal  has  much  to  do  with  the  treatment  accorded. 
If  the  animal  is  in  good  condition,  and  the  attack  arises 
from  some  well  marked  cause,  give  ten  to  fifteen  drops 
fluid  extract  of  aconite  every  four  hours  in  first  stages,  and 
as  much  nitrate  of  potassa,  in  two  dram  doses,  as  the  animal 
will  take  in  his  drinking  water.  Blankets  or  cloths  wrung 
out  in  hot  water  should  be  applied  to  the  sides  of  the  chest 
and  covered  over  with  dry  cloths  or  rubber  cloth.  '  This 
should  be  continued  for  some  time,  and  when  stopped  the 
skin  should  be  dried  thoroughly,  and  liniment  of  soap  and 


332  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

ammonia  gently  rubbed  in,  and  this  covered  with  dry 
cloths. 

When  the  crisis  is  reached,  or  the  febrile  stage  checked 
somewhat,  tonics  and  stimulants  are  used.  Whisky  or 
pure  alcohol,  in  one  ounce  doses,  well  diluted  with  water, 
may  be  given,  and  in  many  cases  carbonate  of  ammonia,  in 
two  dram  doses,  in  the  form  of  a  ball,  may  be  advanta- 
geously used. 

If  the  animal  is  distressed  with  cough,  a  dram  each  of 
gum  camphor  and  extract  of  belladonna,  should  be  given 
four  or  five  times  a  day. 

If  the  attack  is  the  sequel  of  influenza  or  catarrh,  or 
occurs  in  a  horse  of  low  vitality,  aconite  should  not  be 
used,  but  the  tonics  and  stimulants  at  once  resorted  to. 
When  the  animal  begins  to  convalesce,  encourage  his  ap- 
petite with  such  stimulating  food  as  can  be  procured,  but 
no  corn  should  be  given. 

LAMPAS. —  This  is  an  active  inflammation  and  swelling 
of  the  ridges  of  the  roof  of  the  horse's  mouth.  It  is  a 
trifling  ailment. 

Symptoms. — The  soreness  of  the  palate  prevents  the 
animal  from  eating  for  a  few  days,  and  the  inflammation 
sometimes  causes  feverish  symptoms. 

Treatment. —  A  few  days  of  feeding  wet  bran  and  other 
soft  food  will  cause  the  inflammation  to  subside.  The 
brutal  practice  of  burning  the  palate  with  a  hot  iron 
should  never  be  allowed.  If  marching  where  it  is  neces- 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  333 

sary  to  keep  up  the  horse's  strength,  an  early  recovery  may 
be  induced  by  scarifying  the  swollen  roof  of  the  mouth  in 
front  of  the  third  ridge  with  a  knife  or  lancet. 

CONSTIPATION. —  This  exists  when  the  faeces  are  wholly 
retained,  or  are  scanty,  hard  and  small. 

Symptoms. — When  of  long  standing  the  coat  is  rough 
and  staring.  There  is  a  slight  swelling  of  the  extremities, 
sometimes  a  distended  condition  of  the  belly,  and  loss  of 
appetite.  In  all  cases  the  animal  strains  in  voiding  the 
faeces,  which  are  usually,  though  not  always,  small,  hard 
and  dry.  There  is  not  usually  any  sign  of  pain. 

Treatment. —  In  mild  or  recent  cases  the  diet  should  be 
laxative,  and  as  varied  as  convenient.  An  injection  of 
tepid  water  and  sweet  oil  twice  a  day  for  a  few  days  will 
be  useful.  In  prolonged  cases  a  good  purgative  may  be 
necessary. 

SPASMODIC  COLIC. — This  is  a  griping  or  spasmodic  con- 
traction of  the  muscular  coat  of  any  part  of  the  intestines. 
The  usual  seat  of  trouble  is  the  small  intestine,  although 
impaction  of  food  in  the  large  intestine  may  cause  it. 

It  is  always  accompanied  by  pain  of  an  intermittent 
character. 

Symptoms. —  The  early  sign  of  colic  is  sudden  pain  in 
the  region  of  the  intestines,  indicated  by  the  horse  looking 
anxiously  around  to  his  flanks.  As  the  pain  increases,  the 
animal  becomes  more  restless;  paws;  kicks  at  his  belly;  lies 


334  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

down  and  gets  up  frequently;  wants  to  roll  over  when 
down.  After  a  time  the  spasm  passes  away,  to  return 
again  after  a  brief  interval  with  the  same  signs. 

During  the  paroxysm  of  pain  the  pulse  is  much  quick- 
ened and  the  breathing  accelerated;  during  the  intervals 
they  return  to  the  normal.  During  the  attack  there  may 
frequently  be  a  passage  of  hard,  angular  dung  pellets. 
Ineffectual  attempts  to  pass  urine  are  frequently  made. 

Favorable  indications  are  an  increase  in  the  intervals 
of  time  between  attacks,  and  each  attack  becoming  slighter 
than  the  preceding  one.  If  the  animal  passes  wind  and 
soft  dung,  it  is  a  favorable  sign.  The  increase  or  decrease 
of  the  attack  is  also  indicated  by  the  tenseness  of  the  belly, 
or  the  reverse.  The  symptoms  are  only  those  of  pain,  no 
inflammation  being  present,  and  the  extremities  and  skin 
continuing  normal. 

Treatment. —  The  spasms  being  caused  by  an  irritant  of 
some  sort  in  the  bowels,  the  treatment  is  directed  to  re- 
moving this  as  soon  as  possible.  For  this  purpose  admin- 
ister about  one  pint  of  raw  linseed  oil.  If  a  light  case, 
where  overloading  of  the  stomach  does  not  exist,  give  an 
anti-spasmodic  compound — a  minimum  dose — of  one  ounce 
of  sulphuric  ether,  one  ounce  of  tincture  of  opium,  and  one 
dram  of  powdered  ginger,  in  cold  water. 

There  are  many  other  simple  remedies  useful  in  re- 
lieving this  trouble.  An  injection  of  warm  soapsuds  may 
be  used  with  the  other  remedies. 

Rubbing  the  belly  and  legs  gives  comfort,  but  some 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  335 

horses  are  very  violent,  and  must  be  handled  with  care. 
A  favorable  sign  of  relief  is  the  free  passage  of  urine. 
The  horse  should  be  watched  for  several  hours  after  the 
attack  has  passed. 

FLATULENT  COLIC. —  This  is  more  to  be  dreaded  than 
the  spasmodic  colic.  It  is  apt  to  be  chronic,  resulting  at 
times  from  imperfect  digestion. 

Symptoms. —  There  is  distention  of  the  belly, -which  is 
resonant  on  percussion.  The  expression  of  pain  is  not  so 
acute  as  in  spasmodic  colic,  but  more  constant;  there  is 
more  or  less  delirium;  the  animal  is  unsteady  upon  his 
feet,  and  his  extremities  are  cold. 

Treatment. —  Give  as  a  drench  two  ounces  of  bicarbonate 
of  soda,  one  to  two  ounces  of  sulphuric  ether,  and  one  to 
two  ounces  of  tincture  of  opium,  dissolved  in  cold  water. 
Also  use  oil  and  injections,  as  in  spasmodic  colic. 

In  both  spasmodic  and  flatulent  colic,  if  relief  is  not 
obtained,  the  dose  should  be  repeated  at  intervals  of  an 
hour. 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  puncture  the 
animal  on  the  right  side,  in  the  triangular  space  bounded 
by  the  vertebrae,  the  hip  bone  and  the  last  rib;  puncture 
with  a  trocar,  and  leave  the  canula  in  the  opening  tempo- 
rarily. The  trocar  should  be  directed  downward  and 
inward. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

DIARRHEA. —  This  is  a  scouring  of  the  bowels,  resulting 
from  a  natural  effort  to  expel  some  irritating  substance,  or 
from  change  from  dry  forage  to  green  grass.  If  unchecked 
the  animal  loses  flesh  rapidly  at  times. 

Treatment. —  Give  a  laxative  of  one-half  pint  of  raw 
linseed  oil.  Give  an  infusion  of  gentian,  one  ounce,  and 
one  to  two  ounces  of  tincture  of  opium;  feed  dry  food. 

Other  remedies  recommended  are  tannic  acid,  prepared 
chalk,  catechu,  or  powdered  opium. 

LOCKJAW. —  This  is  a  persistent  spasm  of  the  voluntary 
muscles.  The  immediate  cause  is  some  abnormal  condition 
of  the  nerves  and  their  centers.  A  part  of  the  brain,  and 
the  spinal  cord  in  particular,  become  involved. 

The  disease  is  most  commonly  induced  by  picking  up 
rusty  nails  or  other  bits  of  iron,  causing  an  injury  to  the 
sensitive  portion  of  the  foot,  but  it  arises  not  infrequently 
from  a  punctured  wound  or  a  sudden  chill  to  the  back  or 
loins,  such  as  that  caused  by  a  horse  being  left  to  stand  in 
a  draught  whilst  sweating,  after  the  saddle  has  been 
removed. 

Symptoms. —  The  attack  is  characterized  by  more  or  less 
closure  of  the  jaws;  sometimes  the  teeth  are  firmly  fixed 
together;  also  great  difficulty  in  swallowing,  rigidity  of 
the  limbs,  and  extreme  difficulty  in  moving.  The  animal 
pokes  out  his  nose  as  if  suffering  from  sore  throat.  As  the 
disease  advances  the  jaws  become  so  tightly  locked  that 
neither  food  nor  medicine  can  be  introduced  through 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  337 

them.  The  ears  are  held  erect  and  turned  to  the  front, 
the  eyes  are  retracted,  and  the  haw  partially  protrudes;  the 
nostrils  are  dilated.  The  animal  spreads  his  legs  wide 
apart,  and  stands  persistently  with  tail  erect.  The  belly 
is  tense  and  tucked  up,  and  the  muscles  everywhere  stand 
out  prominent  and  rigid.  Obstinate  constipation  and 
torpidity  of  the  bladder  form  a  marked  feature  of  the 
symptoms,  which,  in  general,  reach  their  height  in  three 
or  four  days. 

Treatment. —  The  exciting  cause  should  be  sought  for. 
If  it  is  a  wound  of  the  foot  the  offending  substance  must 
be  removed,  and  the  opening  enlarged  to  give  free  passage 
for  the  pus  which  has  accumulated.  The  hoof  should  be 
pared  down  quite  thin  about  the  hole  to  make  an  easy  exit 
for  the  pus,  and  a  flaxseed  poultice  applied,  to  which 
belladonna  is  added. 

Perfect  rest  and  quiet  are  necessary;  the  stable  should 
be  darkened,  and  the  horse  disturbed  as  seldom  as  possible, 
even  by  the  attendant.  A  pail  of  water  should  be  left 
within  reach  of  the  horse  at  all  times. 

As  soon  as  the  attack  is  recognized,  a  purgative  should 
be  administered.  Solid  extract  of  belladonna  may  be 
given  twice  daily;  the  medicine  may  be  placed  in  the 
mouth  and  allowed  to  dissolve  slowly.  Oatmeal  gruel  in 
liquid  form  should  be  left  so  that  the  horse  can  suck  it 
from  a  bucket  without  opening  his  mouth.  During  con- 
valescence provide  laxative,  nutritious  food,  and  give 
tonics. 


33^  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

PROFUSE  STALING. —  This  disease,  as  its  name  indicates, 
is  characterized  by  great  increase  and  peculiar  alteration 
of  the  urine.  It  is  accompanied  by  excessive  thirst,  and 
the  body  becomes  emaciated.  The  presence  in  the  system 
of  the  poison  of  glanders,  indigestion,  or  feeding  on  musty 
hay  or  oats,  or  boiled  grain,  all  tend  to  produce  this  con- 
dition. 

Symptoms.  —  Excessive  thirst  and  unusual  urination, 
accompanied  by  depraved  appetite,  characterize  the  disease. 
The  mucous  membranes  are  pale  and  dirty- colored,  the 
breath  offensive,  and  the  pulse  thin  and  weak.  A  rough 
coat  and  a  disposition  to  perspire  on  slight  exertion,  are 
accompanying  symptoms. 

Treatment. —  The  food  should  be  changed,  grass  being 
given,  if  procurable.  If  the  water  is  hard,  it  should  be 
boiled.  If  the  horse  can  be  induced  to  drink  linseed  tea, 
he  should  have  it  freely.  As  great  prostration  accompanies 
this  disease,  a  liberal  diet  should  be  allowed,  preferably  of 
a  laxative  nature. 

RETENTION  OF  URINE. — This  may  result  from  inability 
of  the  animal  to  rise  to  its  feet  on  account  of  some  other 
trouble.  Anything  which  may  impede  the  flow  of  urine, 
such  as  a  spasm  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  cancer  of  the 
penis,  or  dirt  in  the  sheath,  may  cause  the  condition. 

Symptoms. — These  are  frequent  and  ineffectual  attempts 
to  urinate,  although  the  animal  strains  and  groans  with  his 
efforts. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  339 

Treatment. —  Apply  hot  cloths  to  the  loins  and  hand  rub 
the  belly;  put  on  blankets  and  shake  up  the  bedding,  which 
sometimes  causes  so  much  desire  to  urinate  that  the  horse 
overcomes  his  difficulty. 

If  these  fail,  and  a  catheter  is  at  hand,  relieve  the 
bladder  by  mechanical  means. 

BLOODY  URINE. — This  generally  arises  from  a  sprain  of 
the  muscles  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  kidneys.  It  may 
also  be  due  to  an  escape  of  the  coloring  matter  of  the  blood, 
without  any  inflammation  being  present. 

Treatment. —  Linseed  tea,  a  laxative  diet,  grass  if  avail- 
able, and  rest,  are  what  is  required. 

LACERATION  OF  EYELID. — This  occurs  from  being  bitten 
by  another  horse,  striking  against  nails  or  splinters  while 
rubbing  against  the  stall. 

Treatment. —  No  part  should  be  cut  away  unless  it  is  so 
badly  lacerated  as  to  make  reunion  improbable.  There  is 
a  strong  natural  tendency  to  reunion  of  these  parts,  and 
with  judicious  management  a  successful  result  is  often  ob- 
tained even  in  very  severe  injuries.  The  parts  may  be 
brought  together  with  two  or  three  stitches.  A  wet  cloth 
should  be  hung  over  the  eye,  and  care  taken  to  prevent 
the  animal  rubbing  against  the  manger. 

FOREIGN  BODIES  IN  THE  EYE. —  These  are  generally 
seeds,  particles  of  hay  or  straw,  or  small  grains  of  dirt. 


34°  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

The  trouble  usually  occurs  at  night,  and  is  indicated  by 
tears  more  or  less  profuse  running  from  a  closed  eye. 

Treatment. — The  particles  will  be  generally  found  under 
the  upper  eyelid,  which  may  be  gently  turned  back  over  a 
pencil  or  other  smooth  article,  and  the  irritating  substance 
removed;  afterward  bathe  the  eye  in  lukewarm  water,  and 
cover  it  with  a  wet  cloth. 

FISTULOUS  WITHERS. —  This  is  the  presence  of  an 
abscess  more  or  less  formidable  at  the  withers,  caused  by 
pressure  of  the  saddle  or  other  bruising  injury. 

In  most  cases  the  mischief  is  at  first  slight,  and  a  few 
days  abstinence  from  work,  with  a  little  alteration  of  the 
saddle,  if  that  caused  the  trouble,  will  generally  effect  a 
cure  and  prevent  recurrence.  If  the  skin  is  tender  a  salt 
and  w^ater  dressing  may  be  applied. 

When,  however,  the  cause  is  continued  or  repeated,  the 
tissues  under  the  skin  become  inflamed,  and  the  cartilag- 
inous pads  of  the  ends  of  the  spinous  processes  may  be 
injured.  If  such  be  the  case  fomentations  must  be  applied 
in  the  first  instance  to  reduce  the  inflammation.  If  these 
fail,  matter  will  probably  form  under  the  skin. 

Unless  a  free  opening  is  made  for  its  escape  it  will 
burrow  in,  under,  and  among  the  muscles,  tendons  and 
ligamentous  tissues  which  lie  on  each  side  of  the  spine  or 
withers,  and  will  form  sinuses.  A  seton  should  be  intro- 
duced to  enable  the  pus  to  escape,  and  prevent  caries  of  the 
spinous  processes,  which  sometimes  occur.  In  the  latter 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  341 

case  the  diseased  bone  must  be  removed.  The  parts 
frequently  heal  over  nicely,  with  perhaps  a  slight  hollow, 
but  a  serious  case  is  apt  to  subject  the  horse  to  suspicion, 
as  not  being  suitable  for  hard  service  with  packed  saddles. 

POLL  EVIL. —  This  is  a  fistulous  abscess  situated  on  top 
of  the  head  immediately  behind  the  ears,  and  is  usually 
caused  by  accidental  violence  or  pressure  of  the  head  stall. 

At  the  first  stage  it  may  be  recognized  as  a  soft,  fluctu- 
ating tumor,  surrounded  by  inflammatory  swelling,  and 
attended  with  stiffness  of  the  neck. 

From  the  peculiar  position,  of  the  injury,  the  matter 
has  no  depending  orifice,  and  unless  artificial  assistance  by 
free  incision  is  given  for  the  escape  of  the  matter,  it  will 
burrow  downwards  among  and  under  the  ligaments  which 
support  the  head.  Among  these  it  is  apt  to  form  large 
and  deep  sinuses,  which  often  extend  down  to  the  bone. 

Treatment. —  Before  pus  is  formed,  reduce  the  inflam- 
mation by  the  application  of  cold  water  to  the  part,  and  by 
administering  purgatives  internally.  If  suppuration  be- 
comes established,  the  abscess  must  be  opened  at  once  to  its 
base,  so  that  the  pus  may  escape  from  the  lowest  point. 
The  opening  must  not  be  allowed  to  close  too  soon; 
fomentations  should  be  repeatedly  applied.  In  some  cases, 
a  seton  inserted  from  the  original  opening,  following  the 
fistula  and  brought  out  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  poll,  are 
very  successful. 


342  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

SORE  BACK. — This  may  take  the  form  of  slight  tumors, 
sitfasts,  or  saddle  galls.  They  are  generally  caused  by 
friction  or  undue  pressure  of  the  saddle,  and  in  the  case  of 
team  horses,  of  the  harness  or  collar.  Improper  saddling, 
or  poor  riding  with  good  saddling,  have  the  same  effects. 

Treatment. —  The  most  essential  thing  is  to  remove  the 
cause  of  the  irritation,  and  the  animal  should,  if  possible, 
be  spared  from  work  for  a  few  days.  Such  alteration  as  is 
necessary  in  the  equipment  should  be  made.  The  blanket 
may  have  holes  cut  in  it  over  the  swelling,  or  the  corners 
turned  under  to  raise  the  saddle  bars,  when  the  tumor  or 
abrasion  is  near  the  edge  of  the  saddle.  With  pack  ani- 
mals, the  hay  or  stuffing  must  be  altered,  hard  lumps 
removed,  and,  if  necessary,  a  chamber  or  hole  left  over 
the  affected  spot.  The  aparejo  is  the  best  pack  saddle  in 
existence  for  heavy  loads  in  the  hands  of  experts,  but  if 
not  continually  watched,  will,  in  the  hands  of  poorly  in- 
structed troops,  ruin  all  the  mules  in  a  few  days  marching. 

The  tumor,  or  swelling,  will  be  best  treated  at  first  by 
an  application  of  salt  and  water.  If  the  irritation  is  not 
removed,  and  there  is  sign  of  suppuration,  it  must  be 
treated  according  to  its  nature  and  degree,  by  application 
of  poultices  of  linseed  meal  mixed  with  boiling  water,  and 
sweet  oil  stirred  in  afterwards. 

Fluctuating  tumors  sometimes  require  to  be  laid  open 
through  the  center  from  end  to  end,  and  injected  with  a 
weak  solution  of  one  part  carbolic  acid  and  fifty  parts 
water,  and  cold  dressings  applied  afterward  until  healed. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  343 

When  one  of  these  swellings,  either  through  neglect 
or  repeated  recurrence  of  the  cause,  has  become  hard  and 
insensible,  and  the  skin  is  permanently  injured,  it  is  then 
known  as  a  "sitfast,"  because  of  the  difficulty  of  removing 
it  or  effecting  a  cure.  The  skin  becomes  thickened  and 
half  dead,  and  is  often  adherent  to  the  bottom  of  the  sore. 
The  sitfast  will  frequently  be  found  to  be  partially  sepa- 
rated all  around  from  the  living  skin. 

The  surest  treatment  then  is  to  cut  it  out.  Remove 
every  particle  of  the  hard,  horny  skin,  after  which  it  may 
be  carefully  touched  with  nitrate  of  silver,  to  remove  any 
of  the  disorganized,  part  which  has  been  left  by  the  knife. 

True  elastic  skin  of  the  orginal  quality  is  never  repro- 
duced when  once  destroyed,  either  in  the  case  of  sitfasts 
or  of  any  other  injuries;  a  substitute  is  formed  which 
answers  sufficiently  well  in  most  cases,  and  the  parts  will 
frequently  contract  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  only  a  small 
scar.  Care  should  subsequently  be  taken  not  to  bring 
undue  pressure  on  the  part. 

Sometimes  the  saddle  or  harness  will  abrade  the  skin; 
If  not  attended  to,  these  "galls"  may  run  into  ulcers.  As 
soon  as  observed,  the  saddle  or  harness  should  be  shifted 
so  as  not  to  rub  on  the  sore  spot.  If  the  skin  has  not  been 
broken,  it  may  be  hardened  by  rubbing  with  a  weak 
solution  of  salt  and  water. 

If  a  scab  be  rubbed  partly  off,  trim  away  the  edges,  and 
if  necessary,  poultice  it  until  it  all  comes  away. 

In  warm  weather  the  woolen  saddle  blanket  produces 


344  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

much  heat,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  cool  off  the  horse 
before  exposing  the  back.  This  will  tend  to  reduce  swell- 
ings arising  from  ill-fitting  saddles.  The  back  should  be 
carefully  examined  when  the  saddle  is  removed,  and  the 
salt  and  water  immediately  applied  to  any  swelling.  If  the 
skin  has  been  rubbed  off  and  a  raw  spot  formed  it  should 
be  treated  with  cosmoline,  or  carbolized  oil.  If  necessary 
to  continue  the  horse  in  use,  the  open  wound  should  be 
covered  with  the  cosmoline,  and  if  it  is  possible  to  remove 
part  of  the  load  it  should  be  done,  and  a  hole  cut  in  the 
blanket  as  before  mentioned. 

MANGE. —  This  disease  depends  upon  the  presence  of  a 
parasitic  insect,  which  is  so  minute  as  to  be  seen  only  with 
much  difficulty.  The  attacks  cause  itching  of  the  skin,  and 
the  hair  falls  off  in  patches.  Any  horse  affected  should  be 
isolated,  and  other  animals  should  not  be  groomed  with 
the  same  brush  and  currycomb.  It  generally  commences 
at  the  roots  of  the  hair  of  the  mane  and  tail.  Minute  pus- 
tules appear,  whose  summits  gradually  expand,  burst,  and 
coalesce  with  one  another,  and  the  united  discharge  from 
them  forms  patches  of  crusts  upon  the  skin.  It  is  under 
these  crusts  that  the  hair  loosens  and  falls  out. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  of  mange  must  be  thorough 
to  be  effective.  The  parts  affected  should  be  washed  with 
soap  and  water,  and  be  dressed  with  a  solution  of  carbolic 
acid  in  the  proportion  of  half  an  ounce  of  the  acid  to  a  pint 
of  water,  going  over  a  part  of  the  horse  each  day.  In  slight 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  345 

and  recent  cases  the  skin  will  recover  its  tone  when  the 
mites  have  been  killed,  and  in  most  cases  the  hair  will  grow 
out  again. 

SCRATCHES. —  This  is  a  condition  of  the  skin  in  and 
about  the  hollow  of  the  heel  akin  to  chapped  hands,  and  is 
frequently  called  cracked  heels.  It  is  usually  produced  by 
exposure  to  wet  and  cold.  Clipping  of  the  long  hair  or 
fetlocks,  which  is  the  natural  protection  of  the  parts,  is  apt 
to  produce  it.* 

Symptoms. —  Lameness,  more  pronounced  when  starting 
off.  Dry,  inflamed  condition  of  the  skin  about  the  heel, 
and  formation  of  small  crusts,  from  which  a  thin,  watery 
discharge  exudes. 

Treatment. —  Keep  the  parts  dry,  if  possible.  If  neces- 
sary to  wash,  do  so  with  warm  water  and  castile  soap,  and 
dry  thoroughly.  If  the  skin  be  unbroken,  rub  with  fresh 
lard  and  vaseline.  Dust  with  powdered  alum  twice  a  day. 
If  cracked,  rub  with  sulphate  of  zinc  and  lard,  one  dram  of 
the  former  to  six  of  the  latter,  mixed,  or  one  part  sulphur 
to  six  of  cosmoline.  It  is  a  troublesome  affection,  and  if 
the  animals  are  in  camp,  and  exposed  to  standing  on  muddy 
picket  lines,  it  is  very  difficult  to  cure. 


*  In  preparing  his  troop  for  the  annual  visit  of  the*  Inspector-General 
during  the  spring,  the  author  was  misled  by  a  spell  of  warm  weather,  and 
premature  shedding  of  the  horses,  and  in  consequence  had  all  the  fetlocks 
trimmed.  On  the  day  of  the  inspection  a  cold  rain  set  in,  and  almost  the 
entire  troop  broke  out  in  a  few  days  with  clearly  defined  cases  of  scratches. 


346  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

BONE  SPAVIN. —  This  disease  generally  appears  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  hock,  and  usually  involves  two  or  more 
of  the  weight-bearing  bones.  Spavins  once  fully  formed 
cannot  be  removed  by  any  remedial  agent,  but  in  common 
with  most  abnormal  growths,  become  less  as  age  advances. 
The  common  causes  are  undue  concussion,  pressure,  or 
sprain.  Hereditary  influence  has  much  to  do  with  produc- 
tion of  spavin. 

Symptoms. —  During  the  formation  of  the  bony  deposit 
some  degree  of  abnormal  heat  may  be  detected,  but  usually 
the  disease  first  makes  its  presence  known  by  the  promi- 
nence of  the  bony  growth,  which  destroys  the  symmetry 
of  the  hock.  Some  stiffness  of  the  hock  and  an  occasional 
tripping  of  the  toe  may  be  noticed.  Peculiarities  will  be  ob- 
served when  the  animal  is  trotted  on  hard,  smooth  ground, 
especially  when  turning,  for  the  horse  is  apt  to  flinch  per- 
ceptibly. Exercise  for  a  few  minutes  greatly  diminishes 
the  symptoms,  but  after  exercise  and  the  horse  has  cooled 
off,  the  stiffness  will  recur,  probably  in  an  increased  degree. 

If  the  horse  is  worked  during  the  formation  of  a  spavin, 
the  inflammation  will  greatly  increase,  and  an  enormous 
deposit  of  bone  may  be  the  result.  The  deposits  may  be 
on  both  hocks,  but  they  are  rarely  similar;  therefore  by 
comparing  one  hock  with  another  it  can  be  determined  if 
anything  abnormal  exists. 

If  spavin  is  suspected  and  any  doubt  exists,  lift  the  hind 
leg  and  forcibly  flex  it  up  to  the  thigh  several  times. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  347 

After  this  trot  the  horse  slowly,  and  if  he  has  spavin  he 
will  probably  show  lameness. 

Treatment. —  If  incipient  spavin  be  suspected,  rest  is  the 
great  essential.  Cold  applications  are  useful,  and  tincture 
of  iodine  may  prove  beneficial,  a  dram  being  injected 
under  the  skin  in  each  of  from  two  to  four  places.  If  the 
inflammatory  action  does  not  subside,  and  the  horse  con- 
tinues lame,  it  will  be  well  to  use  a  blister. 

If  properly  performed,  firing  is  regarded  as  an  effica- 
cious remedy. 

BOG  SPAVIN. —  This  is  a  distention  of  the  capsular  liga- 
ment of  the  true  hock  joint.  The  swelling,  which  is  tense 
and  fluctuating,  shows  itself  primarily  in  front  and  the 
inner  side,  because  in  that  part  the  capsule  is  large  and 
loose.  It  is  always  a  defect  commonly  occurring  in  weak 
hocks,  and  may  become  serious. 

Treatment. —  This  should  be  directed  toward  allaying 
pain  and  reducing  its  size,  but  the  swelling  should  never 
be  punctured.  A  wet  bandage  covered  with  oil  silk,  and 
the  whole  covered  with  a  flannel  bandage,  often  acts 
favorably. 

If  these  measures  fail  a  stimulating  ointment  may  be 
used,  but  as  a  rule  blisters  do  not  prove  permanently  bene- 
ficial in  this  disease. 

BLOOD  SPAVIN. — This  is  a  distention  of  the  veins  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  hock.  No  great  harm  results  from  the 
dilitation  of  the  vein,  although  it  is  both  a  blemish  and  a 
defect. 


348  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

CURB. —  This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  ligament,  ac- 
companied by  a  hard  and  painful  swelling  at  the  back  of 
the  hock,  usually  caused  by  a  sprain.  In  the  earliest  stages 
it  shows  itself  as  a  small,  hard  lump  or  ridge  upon  the 
lower  part  of  the  back  of  the  hock.  As  the  disease  pro- 
gresses, it  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  lameness  of  a 
severe  character. 

Treatment. —  Reduce  the  inflammation  by  fomentations; 
use  a  high  heeled  shoe,  and  apply  a  blister  to  stimulate 
absorption  of  the  exudation.  If  the  inflammation  subsides 
and  the  lameness  continues,  firing  may  be  tried. 

CAPPED  HOCK. —  Synovial  capped  hock  is  a  firm,  fluctu- 
ating swelling  on  and  about  the  point  of  the  hock,  causing 
lameness  and  sometimes  decay  of  the  bone. 

Treatment. —  Either  applications  of  hot  water  or  cooling 
lotions  may  be  used  to  reduce  the  swelling,  then  apply  a 
blister. 

THOROUGH  PIN. — This  is  a  bursal  enlargement  which 
occurs  at  the  upper  and  back  part  of  the  hock,  and  in  a 
medium  form  is  very  common  in  cavalry  horses.  Unless 
very  pronounced,  no  treatment  is  required.  Cold  applica- 
tions, pressure,  or  counter  irritation,  are  used  in  bad  cases. 

BROKEN  KNEES. —  Under  this  name  are  included  all 
injuries  to  the  knees,  from  a  simple  scratch  to  serious 
fractures  of  the  bones,  and  which  usually  arise  from  a  fall. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  349 

Treatment. —  If  the  skin  is  simply  bruised,  the  hair 
scraped  off  and  a  little  blood  oozing  from  the  surface  of 
the  skin,  a  dressing  of  white  lotion  will  probably  heal  it, 
and  the  hair  will  soon  grow  again. 

When  the  skin  is  cut,  wash  it  thoroughly  to  remove  dirt 
and  foreign  substances,  clip  away  the  hair,  and  bring  the 
edges  together,  and  fasten  with  plaster.  Put  a  muslin 
bandage  around  the  knee,  and  tie  up  the  horse's  head  so 
that  he  cannot  lie  down  for  a  few  days.  If  the  tendon  is 
crushed  the  case  may  become  so  serious  as  to  call  for  the 
destruction  of  the  animal,  as  is  done  in  case  the  accident 
has  been  sufficiently  severe  to  fracture  one  or  more  bones 
of  the  knee. 

In  all  cases  the  limb  must  be  kept  as  free  from  motion 
as  possible.  If  inflammation  sets  in  free  exit  must  be 
allowed  for  pus,  and  hot  fomentations  applied  until  it  sub- 
sides, after  which  the  healing  process  may  be  encouraged 
by  cold  applications. 

A  pledget  of  wool  or  tow,  covered  with  white  of  egg 
and  placed  on  the  wound,  and  a  wet  pad  bandaged  lightly 
over  this,  will  exclude  air  and  dirt. 

The  horse  should  be  tied  where  he  will  not  be  apt  to 
strike  his  wounded  knee  against  the  manger. 

SPLINT. —  This  is  a  deposit  of  bone,  either  between  one 
of  the  two  small  bones  and  the  cannon  bone,  or  upon  any 
of  the  three  bones  of  the  fore  leg.  The  deposit  generally 


350  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

develops  on  the  inner  side,  and  usually  a  little  above  the 
center  of  the  bone  between  the  knee  and  fetlock. 

A  simple  splint  in  a  position  removed  from  either 
articulation  or  tendon  is  not  looked  upon  as  serious,  or 
classed  as  an  unsoundness;  all  other  forms  are  liable  to 
cause  lameness,  and  are  indicative  of  more  disease  than  is 
apparent.  Under  this  head  may  be  classed  those  close  to 
the  knee;  double  or  pegged  splints;  that  is,  those  which 
are  found  on  both  sides  with  a  communicating  bar  running 
from  one  to  the  other;  two  or  more  on  the  same  side  con- 
nected, and  finally,  little  bony  deposits  involving  the  knee 
joint. 

Treatment. —  If  it  does  not  cause  lameness  it  should  be 
left  alone.  When  once  fully  formed  it  cannot  be  removed, 
but  often  becomes  absorbed  as  the  horse  grows  older. 
A  bandage  wet  in  cold  water,  and  rest,  will  usually  be  suf- 
ficient, but  if  the  horse  continues  to  go  lame  after  a  rest  of 
a  month  or  six  weeks,  and  the  splint  is  still  sensitive,  it 
may  be  advisable  to  apply  a  blister. 

RINGBONES. —  These  are  bony 'deposits  upon  either  the 
upper  or  lower  pastern  bones,  forming  a  more  or  less  com- 
plete ring  around  the  bone.  True  ringbone  is  serious,  and 
the  degree  of  lameness  does  not  always  depend  upon  the 
size  of  the  deposit.  It  occurs  more  often  on  the  hind  than 
the  fore  fetlocks. 

Symptoms. —  Lameness  is  more  perceptible  on  hard  than 
soft  ground.  The  peculiarity  shown  in  this  case  is  a  stiff- 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  351 

ness,  or  want  of  flexion,  in  the  fetlock  joint,  and  a  conse- 
quent snatching  up  of  the  foot  in  action.  Swelling  and 
heat  are  generally  apparent.  If  lame  in  the  fore  leg,  the 
horse  is  apt  to  put  his  heel  down  first,  but  if  the  deposit  be 
upon  a  hind  leg,  the  toe  is  usually  put  down  first.  Lame- 
ness from  ringbone  is  sometimes  confounded  with  lamin- 
itis,  or  seedy  toe,  but  an  examination  of  the  foot  will 
speedily  determine  if  these  exist. 

Treatment. —  If  the  horse  puts  his  fore  feet  down  heel 
first,  put  on  a  shoe  worked  very  thin  behind.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  he  walks  on  his  toe,  shoe  with  a  high-heeled  shoe. 
Reduce  the  inflammation,  and  blister,  or  fire,  if  necessary, 
but  only  as  a  last  resort. 

WINDGALLS. —  These  are  soft,  pulpy  swellings  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  fetlock  joints.  They  vary  from  very 
small  to  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg.  They  are  quite  common 
with  old  cavalry  horses,  and  arise  from  over-exertion  and 
irritation,  rather  than  from  sprain.  As  they  are  very  apt 
to  return,  and  they  do  not  specially  inconvenience  the 
horse,  it  is  not  customary  in  the  military  service  to  subject 
them  to  any  treatment. 

INTERFERING. —  This  is  striking  the  fetlock  with  the 
opposite  fqot,  causing  a  contusion,  often  abrading  or 
scratching  the  surface,  and  commonly  occurring  with  the 
hind  feet  only.  Horses  when  much  fatigued  are  apt  to 
interfere,  particularly  if  badly  shod.  This  sometimes  is 


352  HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES. 

occasioned  by  a  poorly  clinched  nail.  The  occurrence  is 
generally  indicated  by  the  horse  flinching,  and  if  badly 
struck  he  may  carry  the  injured  leg  off  the  ground  for 
several  steps.  Proper  shoeing  is  the  best  remedy. 

SPEEDY  CUT. —  This  is  an  injury  caused  by  a  fore  foot 
wounding  the  opposite  leg  immediately  below,  and  some- 
times even  above  the  knee.  It  is  usually  inflicted  at  a 
gallop  when  the  horse  has  begun  to  tire.  The  blow 
frequently  causes  the  formation  of  pus. 

Treatment. —  If  pus  is  present  open  the  abscess  freely  to 
give  it  vent;  bathe  with  warm  water  and  a  weak  zinc  wash. 

SWELLED  LEGS. —  This  is  commonly  called  stocking, 
and  is  usually  occasioned  by  want  of  exercise.  It  will 
generally  disappear  when  the  animal  is  exercised  or 
worked. 

THE  FOOT. —  Considering  the  hard,  horny  nature  of 
the  outer  crust  of  the  hoof,  and  the  provisions  made  by 
nature  in  the  way  of  a  cushion  on  the  bottom  of  the  foot, 
it  would  seem  hardly  necessary  to  have  any  anxiety  about 
that  part  of  the  horse,  but  this  is  not  so. 

The  foot  is  subject  to  many  injuries  and  some  diseases. 
Prevention  is  much  better  than  cure,  and  hence  too  many 
precautions  cannot  be  bestowed  upon  this  part  of  the  horse. 
Upon  the  manner  in  which  the  blacksmith  performs  his 
work  the  success  or  failure  of  an  expedition  may  depend, 
and  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  well  trained  men  for  these 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  353 

positions,  it  is  essential  that  officers  should  make  themselves 
acquainted  with  all  that  pertains  to  this  part  of  the  animal. 


PRICKING  OF  THE  FOOT. — This  is  caused  by  nails 
actually  penetrating  the  sensitive  laminae  which  line  the 
interior  of  the  horny  substance  of  the  foot,  or  by  their 
being  driven  into  the  soft  horn  which  surrounds  them. 
In  the  latter  case  it  may  be  a  week  or  two  before  the  lame- 
ness disappears.  Picking  up  a  nail  produces  a  similar 
wound,  and  is  liable  to  occur  at  any  time  a  horse  is  in  use. 
An  injury  of  this  kind  should  be  promptly  treated,  as  it 
may  result  seriously,  even  producing  lockjaw. 

When  the  sensitive  sole  is  injured,  inflammation  almost 
always  occurs,  terminating  in  the  formation  of  pus,  which, 
unless  aided  to  escape,  may  burrow  its  way  up  and  form 
an  opening  upon  the  coronet,  producing  quittor.  In  any 
case  the  horse  shows  lameness. 

Treatment. —  If  not  readily  seen,  the  exact  point  of  the 
lameness  may  be  detected  by  pinching  around  the  foot 
with  a  pair  of  pinchers,  one  branch  being  against  the  out- 
side of  the  hoof  while  the  other  presses  the  sole  inside  of 
the  shoe.  The  injured  spot  being  found,  draw  the  nails 
from  the  shoe,  carefully  watching  each  as  it  comes  out. 
If  one  appears  wet,  it  is  probably  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 

In  all  cases  it  is  essential  to  pare  out  freely,  not  merely 
the  seat  of  puncture,  but  the  surrounding  sole  for  a  consid- 
erable distance,  with  the  view  of  affording  an  easy  exit  for 


354  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

any  matter  which  may  form.     The  foot  should  then   be 
soaked  in  hot  water  for  at  least  an  hour. 

Having  taken  these  precautions  in  cases  treated  im- 
mediately after  the  occurrence  of  the  injury,  that  is,  before 
inflammation  has  begun,  close  the  puncture  at  once  with 
tar  and  tow,  to  exclude  the  air  and  lessen  the  chance  of  in- 
flammation. Perfect  rest  should  be  given. 

As  a  rule,  inflammation  will  set  in  and  the  formation  of 
pus  commence  before  the  injury  is  noticed.  In  addition 
to  paring  the  sole,  recourse  must  be  had  to  poultices  of 
linseed  meal. 

When  prompt  measures  are  taken,  injuries  of  the  sen- 
sitive sole  seldom  prove  serious.  The  insensitive  sole 
having  been  pared  off,  the  horse  will  not  be  fit  for  work 
until  nature  has  resupplied  enough  of  it  for  the  protection 
of  the  foot,  unless  an  artificial  covering  such  as  a  leather 
shoe  is  provided. 

PUNCTURES  OF  THE  FROG. —  These  are  similar  in  char- 
acter to  those  of  the  sole,  and  require  similar  treatment. 
They  nearly  always  arise  from  picking  up  a  nail. 

When  taken  in  time  they  yield  to  treatment  more 
readily  than  prick  of  the  sole. 

If  neglected,  however,  they  are  apt  to  lead  to  extensive 
disease  of  the  frog,  and  canker  may  be  the  result.  In  rare 
cases  the  navicular  bone  may  be  punctured,  when  perfect 
recovery  need  not  be  expected. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  355 

CORNS. —  Corns  are  bruises  of  the  sole,  usually  occurring 
in  the  angle  formed  by  the  bars  and  the  crust  in  front  of 
the  heel.  They  are  rarely  found  on  the  hind  feet.  Corns 
are  very  similar  to  blood  blisters  on  the  human  skin,  and 
are  probably  formed  suddenly  by  a  bruising  blow.  An 
indirect  cause  of  corns  is  bad  shoeing,  the  practice  of  filing 
off  the  crust  to  make  a  good  looking  foot  from  the  black- 
smith's point  of  view,  and  also  from  the  senseless  and 
brutal  practice  of  cutting  out  the  bars.  Sometimes  they 
are  probably  caused  by  stepping  on  a  stone.  When  the 
horse  goes  lame  from  no  other  known  cause,  apply  the 
pinchers,  as  before  described,  to  various  points,  with  firm 
pressure,  until  the  flinching  of  the  horse  shows  that  the 
right  spot  has  been  found. 

Treatment. — The  treatment  usually  consists  in  removing 
the  cause,  which  is  nearly  always  undue  pressure  of  the 
shoe. 

Paring  out  corns  gets  rid  of  them  for  a  time,  but  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  only  means  of  prevent- 
ing a  recurrence  of  them  consists  in  the  maintenance  of  a 
good,  sound,  unrasped  crust  and  unpared  bars,  in  order 
that  properly  fitted  shoes  may  have  a  correct  bearing. 

QUITTOR. —  This  is  a  fistula  of  the  coronet,  which  bur- 
rows in  various  directions,  with  usually  several  openings 
upon  the  quarters  and  heels  of  the  coronet.  The  most 
common  cause  is  a  severe  tread  or  bruise  on  the  coronet. 
It  may  also  arise  from  a  neglected  corn  or  prick  of  the  sole. 


356  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

Treatment. —  The  first  thing  is  always  to  afford  an  easy 
exit  for  the  pus.  Pare  the  sole  clean,  to  see  if  the  trouble 
has  been  caused  by  a  wound  in  that  part.  If  it  has,  cut 
down  into  the  sole  and  open  a  channel  for  the  pus  to  escape 
downward.  If  no  sinuses,  have  formed,  apply  a  linseed 
poultice,  followed  by  a  zinc  and  lead  lotion. 

Great  care  must  be  taken,  as  in  all  cases  of  confined 
pus,  to  prevent  the  external  sore  from  healing  over  before 
the  internal  disease  is  entirely  eradicated. 

SAND  CRACKS. —  These  are  longitudinal  divisions  in  the 
fibres  of  the  hoof  wall,  amounting  sometimes  only  to  a 
flaw,  and  at  others  to  a  fissure  entirely  through  the  sub- 
stance of  the  horn.  It  is  caused  by  brittleness  of  the  crust^ 
often  arising  from  the  practice  of  cutting  away  the  sole 
and  rasping  off  the  hoof.  The  brittleness  may  be  constitu- 
tional, some  horses  being  evidently  predisposed  to  it.  The 
fissure  may  also  be  traced  at  times  to  contracted  heels, 
aggravated,  if  not  produced,  by  cutting  away  the  bars  or 
opening  the  heels. 

These  cracks  do  not  ordinarily  cause  lameness  until 
sufficiently  deep  to  expose  the  sensitive  laminae,  or  until 
they  reach  the  coronary  band.  They  then  become  very 
painful,  and  the  lameness  is  extreme.  They  become  so 
bad  at  times  as  to  open  and  close  as  the  horse  raises  and 
puts  down  his  foot. 

Treatment. — With  a  knife  scrape  the  sharp  edges  of  the 
crack  to  its  bottom,  until  a  clean  groove  has  been  formed. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  357 

Wash  out  with  zinc  and  lead  lotion,  and  blister  the  coronet, 
rubbing  it  in  every  two  or  three  days,  to  stimulate  the 
formation  of  new  horn. 

If  the  crack  does  not  extend  the  entire  length  of  the 
hoof,  draw  a  deep  furrow  with  a  red  hot  iron  at  either  end 
or  both,  sufficient  to  stop  the  crack  from  extending,  but 
not  deep  enough  to  cause  pain. 

Toe  cracks  usually  extend  the  entire  length  of  the  foot, 
and  expose  the  flesh,  which  is  apt  to  become  granulated. 
These  granulations  should  not  be  removed  with  caustic, 
which  only  inflames  the  tissues  more  than  before.  When 
they  have  appeared,  cut  them  away  with  one  stroke  of  a 
sharp  knife.  The  loss  of  blood  which  follows  will  be  of 
advantage  to  the  parts.  Bathe  with  white  lotion  twice  a  day. 

When  the  inflammation  has  subsided,  the  fissure  may 
be  drawn  together  by  cutting  a  niche  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  deep,  half  or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  from  the  crack 
on  each  side,  and  driving  a  flat  horseshoe  nail  through 
from  one  to  the  other;  the  ends  should  be  drawn  together 
and  clinched  with  pinchers.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind 
that  the  horn  of  the  hoof  is  thick  below,  and  thin  towards 
the  coronet,  so  that  nails  cannot  be  driven  very  high  up. 

Clasps  are  manufactured  for  drawing  together  quarter 
cracks,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  using  nails  advantageously 
on  the  thin  quarters  of  the  hoof. 

Shoeing  with  tips,  and  also  with  three-quarter  bar  shoes 
is  advantageous  in  treatment  of  toe  and  quarter  cracks. 


358  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

SEEDY  TOE. —  This  term  is  applied  to  a  .separation  of 
the  outer  wall  or  crust  of  the  hoof  from  the  inner  layer  of 
soft  horn  derived  from  the  laminae.  It  is  caused  by  an 
unhealthy  secretion  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  laminae, 
which  is  incapable  of  maintaining-  the  union  between  the 
structures.  The  disease  always  commences  in  the  lower 
portion  of  the  laminae,  and  extends  upward  and  laterally. 
Though  called  seedy  toe,  the  disease  frequently  affects  the 
quarters. 

Treatment. —  Cut  away  all  that  portion  of  the  crust 
which  has  become  detached  from  the  laminae,  and  if  the 
disease  shows  signs  of  extending,  such  further  portions  as 
may  be  necessary.  Apply  a  bar  shoe  with  a  toe  clip, 
blister  the  coronet  every  other  day,  and  cover  the  exposed 
surface  every  day  with  an  ointment  of  melted  lard  and  bees- 
wax, into  which  turpentine  is  stirred.  This  will  keep  out 
moisture.  Feed  liberally,  and  keep  the  foot  dry. 

THRUSH. — This  is  a  disease  of  the  frog,  usually  occurring 
in  the  hind  feet,  accompanied  by  a  foul  discharge.  As  the 
disease  advances  fissures  occur  in  the  side  of  the  frog  close 
to  the  heel,  from  which  foetid  matter  exudes.  The  condi- 
tion is  generally  brought  on  by  wet,  unclean  stalls,  or  dirt 
of  some  kind,  such  as  stopping  the  feet  with  dung.  In 
contracted  feet  the  sole  is  lifted  off  the  ground  to  such  an 
extent  that  from  want  of  use  the  frog  frequently  becomes 
diseased.  Paring  the  frog  has  a  similar  tendency. 

Treatment. —  If  it  originates  from  dirt  remove  the  cause, 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  359 

and  keep  the  frog  clean  and  dry.  Any  ragged  parts  should 
be  removed  with  a  knife,  so  as  to  open  the  cracks  in  and 
around  the  frog.  Having  removed  the  cause,  endeavor  to 
absorb  the  discharge.  This  will  be  best  effected  by  in- 
serting pledgets  of  tow,  greased  with  calomel  and  lard. 
The  process  of  drying  may  be  assisted  by  the  application 
of  powdered  burnt  alum. 

If  thrush  be  long  neglected  the  neighboring  parts 
become  affected,  and  in  bad  cases  the  whole  of  the  sensitive 
sole  becomes  involved. 

CANKER. —  This  is  a  morbid  secretion  of  the  sensitive 
frog  and  sole,  involving  the  corresponding  insensitive 
parts.  It  usually  has  its  origin  in  neglected  thrush,  but 
it  may  be  due  to  constitutional  causes. 

Symptoms. —  These  consist  of  an  abundant,  foetid,  and 
colorless  discharge  from  the  frog,  which  is  large,  spongy, 
and  covered  by  a  fungoid  growth,  intermixed  with  offen- 
sive matter. 

Treatment. —  This  consists  in  the  complete  exposure  of 
the  diseased  surface,  in  the  application  of  pressure,  and  in 
thorough  dryness.  The  diseased  portion,  including  the 
sole,  must  be  removed,  and  the  surface  dressed  with  nitric 
acid;  the  sole  is  then  covered  with  dry  tow,  and  the  foot 
enclosed  in  a  leather  boot.  The  nitric  acid  may  be  mixed 
with  tar. 

NAVICULAR  DISEASE. —  This,  in  its  primary  stage,  is  in- 
flammation of  the  lower  side  of  the  navicular  bone.  After 


360  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

a  time  the  tendon  which  passes  under  the  bone,  and  its 
cartilage  and  bursa  become  involved.  The  navicular  bone 
acts  as  a  roller  for  the  tendon  which  passes  under  it,  and 
is  attached  to  the  coffin  bone,  and  hence  is  peculiarly  liable 
to  suffer  from  the  effects  of  concussion.  It  rarely  affects 
the  hind  feet,  and  is  most  frequently  seen  in  fore  feet  with 
narrow  and  high  heels. 

The  inflammation  once  set  up  in  the  bone  leads  to  a 
variety  of  changes  both  in  its  external  and  internal  struc- 
ture. 

Symptoms. —  Lameness  may  appear  suddenly  and  with- 
out any  apparent  cause.  It  may  disappear,  and  after  a 
time  reappear,  either  in  the  same  or  in  the  other  foot,  and 
thus  go  on  for  some  time.  In  time  the  symptoms  become' 
more  marked,  and  in  most  cases  the  first  sign  is  pointing 
of  the  foot  in  the  stable,  or  when  at  rest  outside,  followed 
by  shortness  in  the  step  and  lameness.  The  foot  and  the 
horse  may  be  examined  and  nothing  wrong  be  found.  The 
animal  may  appear  sound  one  day  and  have  a  return  of  the 
lameness  the  next.  • 

A  horse  may  point  his  foot  as  a  habit,  but  if  so,  he 
usually  points  a  fore  and  the  opposite  hind  at  the  same 
time,  whereas,  only  the  fore  feet  are  pointed  in  navicular 
•disease. 

With  the  symptoms  described,  if  no  other  cause  such 
as  corns  or  laminitis  can  be  found,  and  there  is  no  external 
heat  or  injury,  it  is  quite  safe  to  diagnose  the  case  as 
navicular  disease. 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  361 

Treatment. —  The  shoes  should  be  taken  off  and  the 
frogs  allowed  to  touch  the  ground.  The  feet  should  be 
placed  in  a  cold  water  bath  for  some  hours  during  the  day, 
and  a  linseed  meal  poultice  applied  at  night.  The  animal 
should  be  encouraged  to  lie  down  so  as  to  get  the  weight 
off  his  feet,  and  he  is  likely  to  do  so  if  isolated  in  a  dark 
stall.  At  the  end  of  a  couple  of  weeks,  blister  the  coronet 
mildly.  Sometimes  it  is  well  to  insert  a  seton  in  the  frog. 

Horses  are  sometimes  " nerved"  for  this  disease,  but 
such  animals  soon  break  down,  and  are  obviously  unsafe 
for  military  service. 

LAMINITIS. —  This  is  an  inflammation  of  the  sensitive 
laminae  which  cover  the  outer  and  upper  surface  of  the 
coffin  bone,  and  is  known  more  commonly  as  "  founder." 
The  original  attack  is  always  acute.  It  may  be  entirely 
relieved,  but  often  a  change  of  structure  results  from  the 
effects  of  the  acute  attack.  It  is  very  painful  and  is  at- 
tended with  much  lameness.  The  pain  is  due  to  confine- 
ment of  the  products  effused  by  the  inflammation  within 
the  outer  hard  case  of  the  foot,  and  the  pressure  thereby 
caused  on  the  sensitive  structures  of  the  interior. 

The  immediate  cause  most  frequently  is  concussion. 
It  may  occur  in  all  the  feet,  but  the  fore  feet  are  more 
often  affected  than  the  hind  ones.  Excitement,  over- 
exertion  and  indigestion  are  frequent  causes. 

Symptoms. —  The  attack  occurs  very  suddenly.  The 
horse  can  hardly  be  got  to  move.  He  seems  as  if  all  his 
body  were  cramped.  There  is  heat  in  the  feet  affected. 


362  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

As  the  seat  of  the  disease  is  in  the  front  portion  of  the 
feet,  the  animal  will  save  that  portion  of  his  feet  as  much 
as  possible  by  throwing  his  weight  on  his  heels.  On 
account  of  the  pain  the  pulse  is  always  accelerated. 

Treatment. — Endeavor  to  relieve  the  local  inflammation 
within  the  feet.  Mild  purgatives  should  be  given,  and  if 
the  bowels  are  torpid,  injections  of  warm  water.  Aloes 
or  strong  cathartics  should  not  be  given. 

Remove  the  shoes,  and  rasp  the  wall  down  level  with 
the  sole,  so  as  to  allow  it  and  the  frog  to  bear  the  weight. 
Do  not  pare  the  sole. 

Give  laxative  food,  and  plenty  of  water.  Give  two 
ounces  of  the  bicarbonate  of  sodium  twice  a  day  in  the 
food,  and  if  the  fever  be  high  give  a  drench  of  from  fifteen 
to  thirty  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  in  water,  and  repeat 
at  intervals  of  four  hours.  Put  the  feet  in  a  tub  of  warm 
water,  and  also  apply  poultices  for  a  few  days.  Give  plenty 
of  bedding,  as  the  horse  should  lie  down  as  much  as 

possible. 

* 

SIDEBONES. —  This  consists  in  ossification  of  the  elastic 
lateral  cartilages,  or  wings  of  the  bone  of  the  foot.  Nature 
supplied  cartilage  instead  of  bone  in  this  part,  in  order  to 
give  elasticity  toward  the  heels,  and  any  alteration,  such  as 
conversion  into  bone,  interferes  with  elasticity,  although 
it  may  not  occasion  lameness.  In  light  horses  they  are 
seldom  visible  to  the  eye,  but  their  existence  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  feeling  the  wings  of  the  bone  of  the  foot. 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  363 

Treatment. —  There  is  no  cure,  but  if  the  cartilages  are 
still  undergoing  change,  blistering  the  coronet  will  hasten 
the  process. 

CALKING. —  This  is  an  injury  of  the  coronet,  generally 
inflicted  by  the  shoe  of  the  other  foot,  or  by  the  foot  of 
another  horse  in  the  herd,  or  in  ranks. 

Treatment. — Remove  any  jagged  ends  and  apply  tincture 
of  arnica.  Keep  the  wound  clean,  and  bathe  three  times  a 
day  with  white  lotion.  If  neglected  it  may  terminate  in 
quittor. 

FLESH  WOUNDS. —  These  may  be  gunshot;  incised  or 
clean  cut;  lacerated,  where  the  skin  is  torn  and  broken, 
with  edges  more  or  less  ragged  and  uneven;  punctured, 
or  those  whose  depth  is  much  greater  than  the  entrance 
aperture;  and  contused  wounds,  or  those  produced  by  con- 
cussion without  perforation  of  the  skin.  They  are  more 
or  less  the  result  of  accident,  except  those  inflicted  in 
battle. 

There  is  a  greater  disposition  in  the  horse  than  in  man 
to  suppurative  action.  Wounds  of  any  extent  seldom  heal 
completely  in  the  horse  by  direct  union  or  by  adhesion. 

Wounds  healed  by  granulation  must  fill  up  from  the 
bottom  gradually,  and  they  should  be  prevented  from 
closing  outside.  This  may  be  done  by  inserting  a  piece  of 
dry  lint  or  tow  between  the  edges  of  the  wound. 

For  wounds  to  be  healed  by  granulation  there  is  no 
better  dressing  than  lint  steeped  in  cold  water.  This  may 
be  covered  with  oil  silk,  to  retain  the  moisture. 


364  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

Unhealthy  granulations  or  proud  flesh,  must  be  kept 
in  check  by  application  of  some  caustic,  such  as  sulphate 
of  copper,  nitrate  of  silver,  or  chloride  of  zinc. 

In  all  wounds  it  is  an  object  of  much  importance  to 
keep  the  parts  in  a  state  of  rest.  In  some  parts  a  certain 
degree  of  motion  cannot  be  avoided,  but  an  endeavor 
should  be  made  to  lessen  it  as  far  as  possible.  In  some 
cases  the  animal  will  have  to  be  tied  up  to  prevent  his 
moving,  and  in  others  a  cradle  will  be  needed  to  prevent 
his  gnawing  the  wound  with  his  teeth. 

Sutures  are  useful  in  bringing  together  the  edges  of 
the  skin  in  parts  where  there  is  but  little  flesh,  such  as  on 
the  forehead  and  the  nose,  but  they  do  not  answer  so  well 
for  fleshy  parts,  where  the  needful  apposition  of  the  parts 
is  best  maintained  by  bandages. 

Sutures  are  best  applied  by  means  of  a  curved  needle. 
Interrupted  sutures  answer  better  than  continuous  ones. 
The  twisted  suture,  made  by  two  needles  and  a  skein  of 
silk  twisted  over  them,  answers  very  well  in  small  incised 
wounds. 

Bandages  should  be  adjusted  very  evenly,  and  not  so 
tight  as  to  obstruct  circulation.  When  circumstances 
admit  of  it,  the  bandage  should  be  applied  above  and 
below,  but  not  over  the  wound. 

If  there  is  any  hemorrhage  it  should  be  stopped  at  once 
by  the  application  of  styptics,  cold  or  pressure.  Oakum, 
tow,  etc.,  bound  over  a  wound  will  often  stop  hemorrhage. 

In  the  general  treatment  of  wounds,  attention  should 


HORSES,    SADDLES   AND    BRIDLES.  365, 

• 

first  be  directed  to  cleansing  the  injured  parts  from  all 
foreign  bodies,  by  allowing  lukewarm  water  to  fall  in  a 
stream  over  it,  one  per  cent,  of  carbolic  acid  being  added 
to  the  water.  Abraded  surfaces  should  be  touched  as  little 
as  possible.  Splinters,  gravel,  a*id  all  foreign  substances, 
if  not  too  deeply  imbedded,  may  be  removed  with  forceps. 

GUNSHOT  WouNDS.-j-If  a  wound  has  been  made  by  a 
bullet,  a  careful  examination  should  be  made  to  ascertain 
if  the  ball  has  passed  through  or  out  of  the  body.  If  not, 
the  probe  should  be  introduced,  and  if  located  it  should  be 
cut  out  if  possible.  Sometimes  a  ball  may  be  so  lodged 
that  it  cannot  be  removed,  and  it  may  become  encysted 
and  remain  without  giving  rise  to  any  inconvenience.  It 
is  often  difficult  to  locate  a  bullet,  as  it  is  very  readily 
deflected  by  resistances  met  with  after  entering  the  body. 
Should  bones  be  struck  by  a  ball,  they  are  frequently  shat- 
tered and  splintered  to  such  an  extent  as  to  warrant  having 
the  animal  destroyed. 

Apply  hot  fomentations,  or  poultices  to  which  carbolic 
acid  has  been  added,  to  the  wound  until  suppuration  has 
been  fairly  established.  Should  pus  accumulate  in  the 
tissues,  openings  must  be  made  at  the  most  dependent 
parts  for  its  escape. 

INCISED  WOUNDS. —  Under  this  class  come  those  made 
by  some  sharp  instrument  or  body.  The  edges  of  the 
wound  are  smooth,  as  though  cut  with  a  knife.  If  they 
occur  in  fleshy  parts,  and  blood  vessels,  tendons  or  joints 


366  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

are  not  injured;  they  soon  recover,  often  with  little  or  no 
special  treatment.  Bleeding  is  more  apt  to  occur  in  wounds 
of  this  kind  than  any  other.  If  from  arteries,  the  blood  is 
bright  red  or  scarlet  in  color,  and  flows  in  jets  or  spurts; 
if  from  veins,  it  is  darker,  and  the  flow  is  regular.  If  the 
bleeding  is  from  an  artery,  pressure  should  be  applied  be- 
tween the  wound  and  the  heart;  if  from  a  vein,  between 
the  wound  and  the  extremities.  The  bleeding  stopped, 
the  wound  should  be  cleansed,  but  an  incised  wound  should 
never  be  rubbed  with  any  coarse  substance. 

If  the  wound  is  parallel  to  the  muscular  fibres,  it  does 
not  open  to  any  extent,  but  if  the  incision  be  across  the 
muscles,  gaping  ensues.  In  the  former  case  stitches  may 
be  taken  to  hold  the  parts  together;  in  the  latter  they  do 
harm,  a  properly  applied  bandage,  bringing  the  edges  of 
the  wound  together,  being  preferable.  The  bandage  should 
be  applied  so  as  to  encourage  union  from  the  bottom,  and 
prevent  accumulation  of  pus.  An  antiseptic  wash  should 
be  applied,  and  if  necessary,  the  wound  may  be  gently 
cleaned  with  a  soft  sponge,  and  castile  or  carbolic  soap  and 
hot  water.  Meddling  with  and  frequent  dressings  of  such 
wounds  do  more  harm  than  good. 

LACERATED  AND  CONTUSED  WOUNDS. —  These  may  be 
described  together,  although  in  contused  wounds  there  is 
no  break  of  the  skin.  Lacerated  wounds  are  usually  also 
bruised  or  contused  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Such 
wounds  may  not  at  first  seem  as  serious  as  incised  wounds, 
but  they  are  commonly  very  much  more  so.  In  severe 


HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES.  367 

contusions,  infiltration  of  blood  takes  place  into  the  sur- 
rounding tissues;  mortification  follows,  often  involving 
deeper  seated  structures,  and  frequently  resulting  in  ab- 
scesses. 

In  lacerated  wounds  the  amount  of  hemorrhage  is  gen- 
erally small;  the  edges  of  the  wound  are  ragged  and 
uneven.  These  wounds  are  commonly  produced  by  some 
blunt  object,  as  where  a  horse  runs  against  fence  posts, 
corners  of  buildings,  trees, "wire  fences,  etc. 

After  a  thorough  exploration,  such  wounds  should  be 
carefully  fomented  with  warm  water,  to  which  has  been 
added  three  parts  of  carbolic  acid  to  one  hundred  of  water. 
Free  exit  for  pus  must  be  secured.  If  the  orifice  is  found 
to  be  too  high,  or  if  pus  is  found  to  be  burrowing  in  the 
tissues,  an  opening  low  enough  to  drain  it  must  be  made. 

There  is  usually  soreness  and  considerable  inflamma- 
tion in  lacerated  wounds,  and  warm  linseed  poultices  may 
be  used  effectively  in  many  cases. 

PUNCTURED  WOUNDS. —  These  are  produced  by  the 
penetration  of  a  pointed  substance,  sharp  or  blunt,  such  as 
a  thor.n,  fork  or  nail,  and  are  apt  to  be  neglected  or  remain 
undiscovered,  by  reason  of  the  opening  being  insignificant 
as  compared  to  the  depth.  They  are  very  common  in  the 
feet  and  legs,  and  in  board  stalls  where  nails  work  loose 
from  the  rubbing  and  kicking  of  the  horse,  they  occur  in 
the  face,  neck,  and  all  over  the  exposed  parts  of  the  body. 
Treatment  is  the  same  as  in  simple  gunshot  wounds. 


368  HORSES,    SADDLES    AND    BRIDLES. 

Punctured  wounds  in  the  fetlock,  knee,  hock,  stifle  or 
other  joint,  are  always  serious,  and  frequently  result  in 
stiffening  or  anchylosis.  These  must  be  looked  for  in 
winter  campaigns,  when  horses  are  shod  with  ice  calks. 
After  the  wound  has  been  examined  and  cleaned,  if  inflam- 
mation has  not  set  in,  apply  a  cantharides  blister  over  the 
joint.  This  treatment  operates  to  prevent  ingress  of  air 
by  swelling  of  the  skin  and  tissues  underneath,  and  also 
the  superficial  inflammation  established  acts  to  check  deep- 
seated  inflammation.  If  the  joint  fluid  is  escaping  it  must 
be  stopped;  treat  with  cooling  lotions  and  a  paste  of  flour 
and  alum,  or  ten  grains  of  chloride  of  zinc  to  an  ounce  of 
water.  Medicine  should  be  applied  on  pledgets  of  tow 
held  in  place  by  bandages.  Such  wounds  require  much 
time  and  perfect  rest  for  a  cure.  Slings  are  very  useful  in 
many  cases. 

It  may  be  remarked  that  in  all  injuries  where  the  true 
skin  is  destroyed  it  is  not  reproduced.  Its  place  is  sup- 
plied by  a  cicatrix,  which  differs  from  true  skin  in  not  con- 
taining hair  follicles. 

The  description  of  diseases  and  injuries,  and  methods 
of  treatment,  by  no  means  includes  all  those  known  to 
veterinary  practice,  but  is  quite  ample  for  the  average 
experience  in  cavalry  service.  To  fix  a  knowledge  of 
diseases  and  remedies  in  the  mind,  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  watch  the  progress  of  such  animals  as  may  be 
attacked  from  time  to  time,  and  note  the  effect  of  various 

modes  of  treatment. 

^^^•^.^ 

'UNIVERSITY: 


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ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 


DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


SEXTON  ILL 

APR  1  5  1998 

U.  C.  BERKELEY 

SENT  ON  ILL 

JAN  1  0  2001 

U.  C.  BERKELEY 

FORM  NO.  DD  19 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
BERKELEY,  CA  94720 


YC  63174 


G3> 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


TO1 


I1III9B 


